Advances in Vinegar Production

Argyro Bekatorou

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2019
• ISBN:
  9781351208451
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Technologie et ingénierie
• Subtopic: Sciences de l'alimentation

In industrial vinegar production, there are three main types of methods involved; the slow, handcrafted, traditional method ("Orleans" or "French" method), and the rapid submerged and generator methods. The current trend is to fuse traditional techniques with state-of-the-art technologies, and a variety of approaches have been developed to increase fermentation efficiency and reduce cost and fermentation time. This book reports on all the recent innovations in vinegar production, and compares them to the traditional submerged fermentation systems. The new trends on raw materials, substrate pretreatment strategies, alcoholic fermentation, and acetitification systems are also reviewed.

1 History and Current
Issues of Vinegar

Seng Joe Lim , Chin Wai Ho , Azwan Mat Lazim , and Shazrul Fazry

CONTENTS

1.1 Introduction

1.2 History and the Development of Vinegar

1.3 Vinegar Market and Statistics

1.4 Uses of Vinegar

1.5 Definitions and Legislation on Vinegar

1.6 Authentication of Vinegar

1.7 Geographical Indication of Vinegar

1.8 Functional Components and Health Benefits of Vinegar

1.8.1 Volatile Compounds of Vinegar

1.8.2 Bioactive Compounds of Vinegars

1.8.3 Bioactivities and Health Benefits of Vinegar

1.9 Current Trends in Vinegar Production

Acknowledgments

References

1.1 Introduction

Vinegar is a liquid product that consists of 4% or more acetic acid, which is commonly used and consumed, either directly or as an ingredient in food. Vinegar is traditionally produced by two-stage fermentation systems, i.e., the alcoholic fermentation of sugary substrates, and subsequently, the acetous fermentation of the ethanol into acetic acid (Ho et al., 2017a). The commonly used raw materials or substrates of the fermentation for vinegar production are fruit, such as apples and grapes (grape must) (Plessi et al., 2006; Lea, 2012), and other plant sources, such as rice, malt, sugarcane, and other carbohydrate containing materials (Shimoji et al., 2002; Kocher et al., 2006; Liu and Yang, 2006). In this chapter, the history, geography, definitions, uses, market and statistics, legislation, authentication issues, health effects/functional components, and current trends in vinegar production are briefly highlighted and discussed. These issues of vinegar production and quality are discussed in more detail in the subsequent chapters.

1.2 History and the Development of Vinegar

The word “vinegar” came from the words “vin” and “aigre,” which literally means “sour wine” in French. That in turn, came from the Latin term “vinum acre” (sour wine) or “vinum acetum” (wine vinegar). In many cultures worldwide, vinegar has been used as a seasoning or preservative agent in various food products as well as a drink after dilution with water (Tesfaye et al., 2002). Thus, vinegar is intentionally brewed for such purposes. However, it is interesting to note that in ancient times, vinegar was seen as a food by-product made by the spoilage of wine due to contact with air (Ho et al., 2017a). The history of vinegar dates back to 10,000 years ago (Conner and Allgeier, 1976; Ho et al., 2017a), and its occurrence always coincided with wine-making, during which the ancient civilizations (Persians, Egyptians, and Mesopotamians) had observed that wines turn sour when exposed to air (Mazza and Murooka, 2009).

Over the centuries, the use of vinegar was portrayed in both historical records and popular literatures. Babylonian records (5000 bc) indicated that the fruit of the date palm (instead of figs or grapes) were used as the main raw ingredient for wine and vinegar making. Another interesting fact is that the Babylonians intentionally used vinegars for pickling and food preservation. In the Mediterranean cultures circa the 12th century bc, vinegar became an extensively used and consumed product (Mazza and Murooka, 2009).

In ancient Greece, Hippocrates (460–377 bc), a Greek physician often regarded as the “Father of Medicine,” recommended the use of vinegar for cleaning ulcerations and for the treatment of sores (Johnston and Gaas, 2006). Later, in the Roman empire (58–50 bc), Julius Caesar wrote in his book, De Bello Gallico (his first-hand account of the Gallic Wars), that vinegar was consumed by Roman soldiers as a beverage mixed with water. The drink was described as highly refreshing and safer than water alone, due to its antimicrobial activity in water of doubtful quality that was collected in foreign lands (Mazza and Murooka, 2009).

During the 8th to 12th centuries in Japan, the Samurai warriors used to consume vinegar as a tonic beverage for power and strength (Liu et al., 2014). In China, Sung Tse (1186–1249), often regarded as the founding father of forensic science, recommended the washing of hands with sulfur and vinegar to avoid infections during autopsies (Chan et al., 1994). In the Middle Ages, during the outbreak of the 1348 plague, the famous Italian physician and Professor of Medicine, Tommaso Del Garbo, suggested the washing of hands, face, and mouth with vinegar to protect the public from infections (Mazza and Murooka, 2009). Later, the second president of USA, John Adams (1735–1826), was known for drinking hard apple cider for breakfast every day. The fact that he lived to 91 was considered a testimony that regular apple cider vinegar consumption contributes to longevity (Liu et al., 2014).

In the 18th century, a French chemist named Durande made an important scientific improvement by successfully concentrating dilute acetic acid from vinegar, to obtain the product that was named “glacial acetic acid.”

Various important developments for industrial vinegar production took place from the 14th century. Prior to that, vinegars were mainly produced as home-made products, at inadequate amounts to cover the growing demands. On the 28th of October 1394, a corporation named Vinaigriers moutardiers sauciers distillateurs en eau-de-vie et esprit-de-vin buffetiers was established in Orléans, France. This corporation, believed to be the oldest in the world that specialized in vinegar making, developed a vinegar production method, called the “Orléans process.” The Orléans process is sometimes referred to as the “slow process,” due to the long time required for vinegar production, which could take up to several months to complete. Interestingly, this process is still in use today, consisting of the addition of the “Mother of vinegar” in wine inside a barrel for the acetous fermentation to occur. When the desired acidity and flavor is achieved, the vinegar is removed from the top, and then the same volume of fresh wine is added for a successive fermentation batch. In this way the production of vinegar is carried out repeatedly and continuously (Mazza and Murooka, 2009).

As the demand for vinegar increased, newer and faster processes were invented. Specifically, in Germany in 1823, Schutzenbach introduced the “generator” process, which shortened the production of vinegar to 3–7 days. The centerpiece of the generator process is the fermentation vessel called the “vinegar generator,” which consists of a large container with two chambers separated by a screen. The largest upper chamber, where the fermentation takes place, is packed with solid materials, usually wood shavings, that carry the acetic acid bacteria. Air is blown through the screen to the upper chamber for better oxygen diffusion, thus increasing the rate of the acetous fermentation. The produced vinegar is filtered through the screen and collected through the lower chamber of the generator (Ho et al., 2017a).

Another vinegar manufacturing method was also developed in Germany by Hromatka in 1955, called the “submerged” acetification, which integrates improved aeration and stirring methods to shorten the production time. Specifically, high-speed motors are used to supply air and stir the suspension of acetic acid bacteria in the fermentation tank (the “acetator”), increasing the oxygen content and thus accelerating the oxidation of alcohol to acetic acid. Three main phases are distinguished in this method: the loading of raw materials and the inoculation of starter culture, the fermentation process accommodated by strong aeration, and the collection of the fermented product, the vinegar. Today, acetators with capacity of 10,000–40,000 liters are commonly available (Ho et al., 2017a).

More details about the main acetification methods (Orléans, generator, and submerged) are provided in Chapter 6 (Current Industrial Vinegar Production: Acetators, Processes and Consumables).

1.3 Vinegar Market and Statistics

Vinegar is a product that is available globally. There are huge variations of vinegar in terms of quality, types, and prices, i.e., from cheap distilled/synthetic vinegar, to common apple cider vinegars, to premium traditional balsamic vinegars. The vinegar market may be explored by-product type and geography, as well as by the product end-use (e.g., as cleaning, culinary, medical, industrial, health and beauty, automotive, etc.) (Radiant Insights Inc., 2018). Its versatility and diverse applications have placed vinegar among the most valuable food products, with an estimated global market value of around 1.26 billion US$ in 2017 growing at a Compounded Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 2.1% during 2010–2017, according to the IMARC group (Market Publishers, 2018).

According to Radiant Insights Inc. (2018), based on Technavio’s report Global Vinegar Market 2017–2021, the global vinegar market is estimated to grow at a substantial CAGR of 6.74% during 2017–2021, as product types and applications, disposable incomes, and health awareness are continuously increasing across the globe. Europe was the biggest market for vinegar in 2017, followed by North America, Asia Pacific, Latin America, Middle East, and Africa, and is expected to continue leading in the forecast period (2017–2021) (Radiant Insights Inc., 2018).

According to the report Global Dressing Vinegar Market Analysis and Forecast, By Type, 2016–2024 by Persistence Market Research (2018), the vinegar market segment in 2015 was pegged at about 36,710 mt for balsamic vinegar, 8,686 mt for apple cider vinegar, 9,673 mt for white wine vinegar, 4,901 mt for rice vinegar, 21,078 mt for red wine vinegar, and 5,588 mt for malt vinegar. By the end of 2024, the market is expected to reach about 54,772 mt (CAGR 4.6%) for balsamic vinegar, 13,427 mt for apple cider vinegar (CAGR 5.0%), 14,297 mt for white wine vinegar (CAGR 4.5%), 7,539 mt for rice vinegar (CAGR 5.0%), 31,720 mt for red wine vinegar (CAGR 4.7%), and 8,541 mt for malt vinegar (CAGR 5.5%) (Persistence Market Research, 2018).

A variety of market reports on vinegar production and consumption statistics, trends, and forecasts are also available on the World Wide Web. Lists, presentations, and discussions on the key and promising operating vendors in the vinegar market space can also be found, such as the 2017 list presented in Technavio’s report Global Vinegar Market 2017–2021 (Radiant Insights Inc., 2018), and others.

1.4 Uses of Vinegar

Historically, vinegar was considered a by-product of wine making, due to wine oxidation that rendered it useless. However, through human observations and innovation over the centuries, the usefulness of vinegar became apparent. As discussed in the previous section, the Babylonians intentionally used vinegars for pickling and preserving food, while other cultures used vinegars as disinfectants and for their health promoting effects. Today, these uses of vinegars have somewhat remained the same.

As the composition of vinegars was unveiled through scientific studies, it was found that besides acetic acid as a major component, vinegars also contain a wide variety of phenolic compounds, vitamins, and other bioactive molecules, depending on the raw materials used and the applied fermentation parameters. These compounds were found to possess health promoting effects, and thus, vinegars are today marketed as healthy beverages, which can be consumed directly or in diluted form. Vinegars...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half-Title
• Series
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Series Preface
• Series Editor
• Preface
• Editor Bio
• List of Contributors
• Chapter 1 History and Current Issues of Vinegar
• Chapter 2 Types of Vinegars
• Chapter 3 The Biochemistry of Vinegar Production
• Chapter 4 Advances in Enumeration and Identification of Vinegar Cultures
• Chapter 5 Raw Materials and Pretreatment Methods for Vinegar Production
• Chapter 6 Current Industrial Vinegar Production: Acetators, Processes, and Consumables
• Chapter 7 Advances in Immobilized Biocatalyst Technologies for Vinegar Production
• Chapter 8 Solid-State Fermentation Systems for Vinegar Production
• Chapter 9 Current Trends in Balsamic/Aged Vinegar Production and Research
• Chapter 10 Vinegar Production in China
• Chapter 11 Current Aspects of Wine/Raisin Vinegar Production and Fields of Improvement
• Chapter 12 Cider Vinegar Production
• Chapter 13 Vinegars Made with Kefir
• Chapter 14 Innovative Vinegar Products
• Chapter 15 Modeling and Optimization of Acetic Acid Fermentation
• Chapter 16 Post-Fermentation Treatments of Vinegars
• Chapter 17 Vinegar Aroma Profile and Analysis
• Chapter 18 Health Benefits of Vinegars
• Chapter 19 Dilution Water in the Vinegar Industry
• Chapter 20 Rapid Detection Methods for Online Monitoring of Vinegar Fermentations
• Chapter 21 Fraud, Quality, and Methods for Characterization and Authentication of Vinegars
• Chapter 22 Life Cycle Assessment in the Vinegar Sector
• Index