1 Warning-pieces
Introduction
Pamphleteers of the seventeenth century evocatively called them âwarning-pieces,â employing the term for a signal gun fired to announce impending danger. More commonly they were known as âprodigies,â which encompassed any number of unusual events and departures from the natural order. By the time this anonymous pamphleteer published his account of one such wonder in 1655, readers could have been forgiven for finding them commonplace: âWhat unnaturall Tides have we had within these few years?â the author himself asked rhetorically. âWhat monstrous Fishes. . . What lamentable Fires. . . What unusuall stormes of Haile. . . What incessant showres of Raine, whereby some of our Plenty is already washâd away?â2 And this was but a small sampling of the wonders that had proliferated in Great Britain over the preceding fifteen years of social and political turmoil. In the two decades that saw the outbreak of civil war, the execution of a king and the abolition of monarchy, the establishment of a republican government and a protectorate, and ultimately the reinstatement of a Stuart on the English throne, Godâs warning-pieces abounded through more than mere meteorological aberrations.
Although such providential signs were by no means an invention of the English Revolution, the Britishâand especially the Londonâpress in the mid-1600s was admirably poised to both spread and exploit them. A society of increasing individual and communal literacy, in which the practices of reading aloud and of summarizing a workâs contents in woodcuts allowed even the technically illiterate to share in printed intelligence,3 generated a voracious appetite for news that was only made keener by political unrest. Unfortunately for would-be reporters, however, the Stuart government looked upon printed news with a suspicious eyeâdomestic especially, but also foreign, which could âreflect on British affairs, and comment unfavourably on the kingâs policy of non-intervention [in the ongoing European wars].â4 James VI/I and his successor, Charles I, both sought to limit the circulation and content of the emergent periodicals of the 1620sâ30s, first by an uneasy license to a single printing syndicate, then, when political pressures from abroad increased, by proscribing them altogether in October 1632.5 For the most part, eager publishers managed to get around even these fickle censorship policies by changing the format of their publications (for instance, they printed âmodern historiesâ instead of short newsbooks), and readers continued to follow events with keen interest.6 Nevertheless, it was when the Star Chamber was abolished in 1641 and strictures were removed that printers were truly handed the ingredients for lucrative publishing ventures: a failure of official censorship, an eager audience, and political crises that offered intelligence worth reading. The âfrantic hunger for newsâ was fed by a multitude of obliging printers and publishers, and 1641 to 1660 saw a dramatic rise in the number of both regular periodicals and cheap, often sensational ephemera.7 As one later news-serial put it in its first issue, with some exaggeration:
âWhat was done in England,â however, encompassed more than troop movements and Parliamentary deliberations: and narratives of âstrange and trueâ wondersâfrom witchcraft to monsters to ghostly armies observed fighting in the skyâexisted without paradox alongside these more prosaic reports. Both were passed along in letters and through private news networks; both were recorded in diaries alongside writersâ prayers and reflections on the state of the world. After all, wonders were âstrange,â and yet at the same time nothing new: to borrow Alexandra Walshamâs comment regarding popular narratives of divine judgment, the prodigy genre had âa venerable heritageâ that stretched back not only to the days of the early Church but to the classical pagan past as well.9 Writers of the seventeenth century pointed to the comets and strange births that had heralded the destruction of Jerusalem in ad 70 as effortlessly as they referenced contemporary occurrences of comets and rains of blood in war-torn Germany, and the historical argument of the 1655 pamphleteer was reiterated so frequently as to become a truism: when a political or religious crisis shook a nation, and especially a nation with claims to godliness, it would be accompanied by âmorbid symptomsâ in nature and direct, if often puzzling, signs from God.10
Despite this long history, historians continue to debate how much credence early modern readers gave to the tales that appeared in the cheap âpulpâ pamphlets of the wars and Interregnum. Authors typically advertised their narratives as âstrange and true,â stressing the number and respectability of those who had witnessed the prodigy and would even include directions to the place where readers might view it for themselves. And yet patently false reports still crept in,11 and even the appearance of scrupulous reportage could be mere âsales talk,â not necessarily credited by the buyer.12 Some readers, indeed, may have scoffed at the idea of storms or comets as signs of divine wrath, and private sources suggest that even those who kept an eye open for such events were not always comfortable with interpreting them: Sir Simonds dâEwes, for example, recorded many strange things in his diary, but when a lightning strike at St. James caused dire political prognostications, he sniffily observed, âI omitt these fopperyes.â13 Certainly writers themselves were quick to decry the unbelief of those who lightly dismissed their warnings; the prodigy genre abounds with authorial and editorial complaints about the hard-heartedness of their audience, who, they grumbled, too easily dismissed so-called prodigies as mere natural occurrences and failed to see in them divine warnings.
Yet this recurring grievance flows from the pamphletsâ didactic purpose and must be taken with a grain of salt. It seems most probable that the majority of readers were neither entirely credulous nor wholly skeptical but, while acknowledging the validity of marvelous signs in principle, accepted the veracity of some stories and rejected that of others on a case-by-case basis. This was all the more necessary since there was no official body for the regulation and verification of prodigy accounts, and therefore truth and lies could both be published freely (a fact which writers and publishers acknowledged and occasionally denounced); it was thus down to the reader to decide for him- or herself which was which.14
Their credibility aside, signs from heaven abounded, and the literature surrounding them came to form a substantial portion of the 1641â1660 âprint explosion.â The question for scholars of early modern culture has been what, if anything, is to be made of them. Were they sensational stories designed to entertain the average (poorly educated) Englishman or woman, or sermons disguised under popular trimmings? Do they reflect a complex worldview informed by a deep belief in divine providence, or are they the product of, as one historian has argued, âunsophisticated, enchanted views of life and societyâ that ignored religious niceties?15 Can they tell us anything about the intricacies of the English Revolution, or are they now, as pamphlets in general were sometimes regarded by contemporaries, âsmall, insignificant, ephemeral, disposable, untrustworthy, unruly, noisy, deceitful, poorly printed, addictive, a waste of timeâ?16 Scholars were long inclined toward the second opinion, meaning that the popular narratives were either ignored or else marginalized as delusions, gross sensationalism, and the precursor of modern-day tabloids. Under such a paradigm, accounts of monsters, comets, apparitions, witches, and rains of blood are treated within the context of a progression from superstition to science, from the marvelous to the mundaneâor, conversely, as symptomatic of a deep-rooted irrationality common to men and women of the seventeenth and the twenty-first centuries. A stage in the development of the scientific revolution, or a cousin of the magazines at the checkout counter: in either scenario, early-modern narratives of prodigies and astrological portents are not deeply studied on their own merits.
This scholarly approach has changed dramatically ...