Routledge Handbook of Environmental Policy in China

Eva Sternfeld, Eva Sternfeld

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2017
• ISBN:
  9781317568001
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Economics
• Subtopic: Sustainable Development
• Index: Economics

During the last few decades, China has accomplished unprecedented economic growth and has emerged as the second largest economy in the world. This 'economic miracle' has led hundreds of millions of people out of poverty, but has also come at a high cost. Environmental degradation and the impact of environmental pollution on health are nowadays issues of the greatest concern for the Chinese public and the government.

The Routledge Handbook of Environmental Policy in China focuses on the environmental challenges of China's rapidly growing economy and provides a comprehensive overview of the policies developed to address the environmental crisis. Leading international scholars and practitioners examine China's environmental governance efforts from an interdisciplinary perspective. Divided into five parts, the handbook covers the following key issues:

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• Part I: Development of Environmental Policy in China - Actors and Institutions

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• Part II: Key issues and Strategies for Solution

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• Part III: Policy Instruments and Enforcement

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• Part IV: Related Policy Fields – Conflicts and Synergies

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• Part V: China's Environmental Policy in the International Context

This comprehensive handbook will be an invaluable resource to students and scholars of environmental policy and politics, development studies, Chinese studies, geography and international relations.

1
INTRODUCTION

Eva Sternfeld

We must not give up eating for fear of choking, nor refrain from building our own industry for fear of pollution and damage to the environment.

Statement by Tang Ke, leader of the Chinese delegation at UNCHE Stockholm, 1972. (China’s Stand on the Question of the Human Environment 1972, 5)

We will resolutely declare war against pollution as we declared war against poverty.

Premier Li Keqiang at the annual People’s Congress meeting in March 2014 (Reuters 2014)

Nearly 45 years have passed since the first UN Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE) in Stockholm 1972. The Chinese delegation, as mentioned in the above quotation, used the international stage to denounce capitalist industrialized countries for causing worldwide environmental degradation and to insist on the developing countries’ right to industrial development. However, it is also widely acknowledged that the Stockholm conference provided the impulse for the development of China’s domestic environmental policies.

Today, the world looks rather different. During the last few decades, China has accomplished unprecedented economic growth and has emerged as the second largest economy in the world. The ‘economic miracle’ has led hundreds of millions of people out of poverty, but has also come at a high cost. Environmental degradation and the impact of environmental pollution on health are nowadays issues of the greatest concern for the Chinese public and the government. In 2014, the Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) noted 471 incidents that could be designated as ‘environmental emergencies’ (see Yu et al., chapter 13). In August 2015, the ‘Tianjin blast’, with the detonation of almost 3,000 tons of toxic materials including ammonium nitrate and sodium cyanide that had been illegally stored in a warehouse in the Tianjin Harbour, killed 173 people and injured a further 800 (The Guardian 2015). These incidents are symptoms of an aggravating crisis. Air pollution is related to the premature deaths of as many 1.6 million people in China per year and almost 40 per cent of China’s population live in areas where the air that they breathe is regarded as unhealthy all year round, according to international standards (see Ahlers and Hansen, chapter 7). The capital, Beijing, is already infamous for its deteriorating environmental quality. In early 2015, Beijing’s mayor, Wang Anshun, declared the city ‘unliveable’ because of the noxious smog (Kaiman 2015). However, air pollution is not the only ecological peril facing Beijing: the water shortage is also growing more acute. This mega city has, in fact, become greatly dependent on neighbouring provinces for its water supplies. The severe pollution of surface and groundwater is another critical issue (see Nickum, Jia and Moore, chapter 6). In 2014, a nationwide soil survey revealed that approximately 19 per cent of the fields tested were heavily polluted with cadmium, mercury and arsenic (MEP/MLR 2014).

The water and the soil crisis are directly related to the remarkable increase of productivity in the agricultural sector. Intensification comes with serious side-effects for environmental and public health. Not only is the agriculture sector China’s leading water consumer and polluter of water bodies. With 14 kg/ha on average more pesticides applied on Chinese agricultural land than in any other country of the world, overuse of agrochemicals is a serious health risk not only for millions of people living in the country but for food safety for the entire population (Bluemling, chapter 9).

China’s environmental crisis is a matter of global concern. The country’s rapid economic growth has been accompanied by a massive increase in fossil fuel consumption and related emissions (see Oberheitmann and Suding, chapter 19). This level of growth was not foreseen by economists, and the increase in China’s emissions substantially outpaced any scenario that had been envisioned in the late 1990s. At that time, when the Kyoto Protocol was being negotiated, the commonly held belief was that China would overtake the United States as the world’s leading producer of emissions sometime around 2030 (Frankel 1999), but by 2007, China had already become the world leader in emissions of greenhouse gases. In 2015, China produced 30 per cent of global CO₂ emissions, while China’s per capita CO₂ level of 7.6 tonnes was already exceeding the EU28 level of 6.7 tonnes (PBL 2015). As a result, China came under increasing pressure to accept more global responsibility and to play a more active role in the post-Kyoto process (see Heggelund and Nadin, chapter 8). Recent developments, such as the ratification of the Paris Agreement are seen as promising signs that China is taking measures to mitigate climate change impacts. In particular, the rapid development of renewable energies (see Lewis, chapter 20) as well as the announcement that a nationwide carbon emissions trade scheme will be introduced by 2017, are seen as Chinese contributions to global efforts in the area of climate protection.

Recent statements by Chinese officials referring to environmental protection have also sounded a different tone. The government has not only declared ‘war on pollution’, but is also discussing a value matrix that differs from the pure GDP growth-oriented approach employed in the past:

The development of ecological civilization is an essential part of the socialist undertaking with Chinese characteristics … From an overall perspective, however, the development of ecological civilization in China still falls behind economic and social development … The contradictions between development and population as well as resources and environment are increasingly prominent, which have become a serious bottleneck hindering sustainable economic and social development.

(CPC 2015)

The above quotation was taken from a 20-page document entitled ‘Opinions on Further Promoting the Development of Eco-Civilisation’ that was jointly issued in 2015 by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (CPC) and the State Council, to present a road map for the environmental policies of the current 13^th Five-Year Plan (FYP). The catalogue of environmental policies that it contains include binding targets for reducing emissions, ‘red line’ limits on the consumption of natural resources, and the implementation of market mechanisms to establish ecological values, a water rights market and compensation for ecological services. It is anticipated that China will introduce a nationwide trading market for carbon emissions by 2017. In addition, the document issues calls to

include targets for resource consumption, environmental damage and ecological benefits in the system of comprehensive assessment on economic and social development, significantly raise the weight of these targets, … and to abandon the concept of regarding economic growth as the only criterion in government performance assessment.

(CPC 2015)

In other words, the efforts to introduce a ‘Green GDP’, which failed in 2007, might see a revival.

Furthermore, the evaluation system for the promotion of cadres was reformed in 2013 and environmental performance (measurable by several indicators, such as air and water quality) has been added to the list of criteria (see Kostka, chapter 3). The ‘Opinions on Further Promoting the Development of Eco-Civilisation’ even stipulate the ‘lifetime accountability of cadres’ for environmental damage (CPC 2015).

Remarkable efforts have been made to improve the environmental legislation and the enforcement of these laws. Since 2013, an Action Plan for Preventing and Combating Air Pollution, a Water Action Plan and, most recently, a Soil Protection Action Plan with measurable and binding targets, have been enacted. The MEP, for many years regarded as a toothless tiger, has experienced a radical reshuffle. Towards the end of January 2015, Chen Jining, a scholar trained in environmental engineering and former president of the prestigious Qinghua University, was appointed as the new minister. In early 2016, the ministry’s divisions were restructured in order to implement, more efficiently, the policies related to the three action plans mentioned above (Li 2016).

The road map for China’s future environmental policies is ambitious, but the country’s practical capability to implement them still needs to be proven. This handbook helps to assess the accomplishments as well as the deficiencies of a fragmented authoritarian system. The contributions presented in this handbook offer detailed accounts of the ways in which policies in China are developed, showing how governmental and non-governmental actors are able to respond to the challenges of environmental change. To cover the wide range of issues related to this complex topic, this handbook brings together the work of an interdisciplinary group of international scholars who each have a special field of expertise.

The volume is structured in five parts. Part I explains the development and current status of the environmental policies in China, and introduces the relevant actors and institutions. Part II (Key issues and strategies for solution) provides first-hand details of the latest research on environmental challenges and policies related to water management, air pollution, climate change, rural environmental protection, biodiversity, soil conservation and afforestation, disaster risk management and environmental health. Part III discusses policy instruments and their enforcement. Part IV looks at the environmental impact of related fields, such as energy policies and urban development. Finally, Part V examines China’s environmental policies in an international context, for example, sustainable production and international trade as well as international cooperation on climate protection policies.

Development and status of current environmental policy

In recent years, the Chinese authorities have made remarkable efforts to complete and improve the legal framework for environmental protection. In their contribution, Qin and Zhang (chapter 2) trace the development of China’s environmental legislation from its early beginnings in the 1970s to the recent revision of the Environmental Protection Law. The new Environmental Protection Law, which came into effect in 2015, is the second revision of this law since the first provisional law was enacted in 1979. Since then, China has issued a number of national laws aimed at pollution prevention and control, as well as laws, regulations and technical standards related to resource protection. The Environmental Protection Law was formally enacted in 1989, but it has taken 25 years and four readings to revise and adapt it to the challenges of rapid modernization. Remarkable amendments have been added to the earlier version of the law, for example, the new chapter 5, which addresses the participation and the rights of civil society in ensuring environmental protection. In addition, the new law provides the MEP with more power and tools, such as the authority to order the restriction and suspension of production, the seizure of property and the right to deny environmental impact assessment (EIA) procedures in ecologically fragile regions. Qin and Zhang also take a close look at several complementary measures that have been introduced by the MEP to regulate the implementation of the new Environmental Protection Law.

They show, that law reforms have been remarkable. However, it is widely agreed that institutional structure and capacity are still lagging behind and there are serious deficits when it comes to enforcement at the local level. Kostka (chapter 3) examines the obvious gaps between ambitious national level policy-making and inefficient local policy implementation. She puts forward an analytical framework for identifying the shortcomings in environmental planning, political and economic incentives, public participation, and financial, technical and political capacity. As mentioned previously, recent FYPs have included measurable targets for environmental protection and quality, and this has led to environmental protection issues gaining an enhanced profile on local policy-making agendas. As Kostka argues, however, there have been some undesirable effects, for example, the targets of an FYP might not accurately reflect the actual environmental problems at the local level, or targets might be so rigidly set that they are impossible to fulfil. The recent reforms to the annual cadre evaluation system for local politicians and managers of state-owned enterprises (SOE) also included some environmental quality indicators, the plan being that an excellent environmental performance should result in promotion or, in the case of mismanagement, in redeployment. Nevertheless, as Kostka points out, the cadre evaluation system still has its limitations. Due to their relatively short terms of office (three to four years on average) and frequent rotation, cadres prefer to undertake the implementation of measures that yield fast visible results rather than long-term environmental protection efforts. Despite the amendments to the evaluation system, more value is usually placed on meeting economic targets than on meeting environmental targets. It is therefore understandable that politicians are interested in bolstering local government budgets by selling land-use rights even when they know that this can lead to the loss of agricultural land and green space. The limited opportunities for non-state actors are identified as another reason for the failure of environmental policies at the local level. For example, although small and middle-sized companies account for more than 40 per cent of total energy consumption, small private companies have long been excluded from official policies for improving energy efficiency and reducing emissions. The media and environmental NGOs are playing an increasingly important role as environmental watchdogs, but their impact is still limited to certain topics and fields of participation.

The widening arena for non-state advocacy groups and their impact on environmental policy is examined in two contributions: Shapiro (chapter 4) describes how the strategies of China’s civil environmental movement have developed along with the reform process from simple symbolic actions, such as tree-planting and garbage collection, to more creative tactics, such as using the mass media and social media for networking, whistleblowing, information-sharing and undercover investigation. In addition, the amendments to the environmental legislation opened new doors for public participation and information. In Western literature, however, the impact of environmental NGOs and environmental activists as advocacy groups for the promotion of environmental policies is possibly overrated. Huang, Sheng and Barg (chapter 5) argue that, in most cases, the political influence of these groups has been limited to local environmental events and has only had little, if any, impact on national policies. They identify international advisory institutions, such as the China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and Development (CCICED), national think-tanks and professional associations, including the China Renewable Energy Industry Association, as influential advocacy groups that have helped to put green economy concepts such as low carbon economy and circular economy on the agenda of the Xi Administration’s ‘new normal’ development strategy.

Key issues

Water

The availability and quality of water are decisive factors in China’s ecological stability. Access to water is crucial for food security and although agriculture is still by far the largest water user, the rapid urbanization process has greatly intensified the competition between agricultural and urban-industrial users. A recent national water census revealed that about three-quarters of China’s available water resources are being consumed and that, in some areas, for example the North China Plain, these resources are being used at unsustainable levels, leading to declining groundwater tables. This dramatic data resulted in the enactment of the most ambitious Water Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan (known as the ‘Water Ten Plan’) in 2015 and efforts to strictly implement the ‘Three Red Lines’, setting caps on total water consumption and establishing mandatory goals for water efficiency and water quality to be achieved by 2020 and 2030. Observance of the ‘Three Red Lines’ is also to be included as one of the performance evaluation indicators for the promotion of loca...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• List of figures
• List of tables
• Notes on contributors
• List of abbreviations
• 1 Introduction
• Part I Development of environmental policy in China: actors and institutions
• Part II Key issues and strategies for solution
• Part III Policy instruments and enforcement
• Part IV Related policy fields – conflicts and synergies
• Part V China’s environmental policy in the international context
• Index