Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History

Victor Cunrui Xiong, Kenneth Hammond, Victor Cunrui Xiong, Kenneth J. Hammond

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2018
• ISBN:
  9781317538226
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Geschichte
• Subtopic: Chinesische Geschichte

The resurgence of modern China has generated much interest, not only in the country's present day activities, but also in its long history. As the only uninterrupted ancient civilization still alive today, the study of China's past promises to offer invaluable insights into understanding contemporary China.

Providing coverage of the entire Imperial Era (221 BCE–1912 CE), this handbook takes a chronological approach. It includes comprehensive analysis of all major periods, from the powerful Han empire which rivalled Rome, and the crucial transformative period of the Five Dynasties, to the prosperous Ming era and the later dominance of the non-Han peoples. With contributions from a team of international authors, key themes include:

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• Political events and leadership

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• Religion and philosophy

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• Cultural and literary achievements

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• Legal, economic, and military institutions

This book transcends the traditional boundaries of historiography, giving special attention to the role of archaeology. As such, the Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History is an indispensable reference work for students and scholars of Chinese, Asian, and World History.

PART I

Early Imperial China (Qin–Five Dynasties)

SECTION 1

The Qin-Han Empire

In 221 BCE, Ying Zheng 嬴政, king of the state of Qin, upon unifying the realm, declared himself huangdi 皇帝 (august emperor; known as the First Emperor in history), creating the first ever imperial dynasty in Chinese history. Not long after the death of the First Emperor (210 BCE), the mighty empire began to fall apart. Traditionalists, especially the Han scholars, faulted the tyrannical rulership of the Qin emperors as the root cause for the downfall, and the Qin became a poster-child for evil government.

Recent scholarship based on excavated materials has shed light on the existence of a relatively well-regulated Qin society with its cultus that seems to have escaped the attention of the Han scholars. Although it should by no means exonerate the First Emperor for the drastic actions he took, including the burning of the books, the execution of the scholars, and the building of costly public works, it does show that Qin history is necessarily much more nuanced than the traditionalists would have us believe.

Following the fall of the Qin, the Han empire, the first part of which was based in Chang’an 長安 in the Wei valley, arose to coincide, apart from a brief interruption, with the last two centuries of the Roman Republic and the first two centuries of the Roman Empire. While condemning the harsh Legalist (fajia 法家) rule of the previous regime, the Han leadership retained much of the Qin government system. The early Han sovereigns such as Emperors Gaozu (Liu Bang 劉邦), Wen 文, and Jing 景 adopted a Daoist governing philosophy. But Emperor Wu 武帝, Jing’s successor, made Confucianism (rujia 儒家) the state ideology, a tradition that would live on for the next two millennia. In the Eastern Han, the second half of the Han empire arose following the Xin interregnum, and the capital was set up in Luoyang 洛陽 to the east in the Central Plains. Throughout this period, Confucianism was in ascendancy. In the second century, the first Daoist religion debuted as the Way of Five Pecks of Rice (wudou mi dao 五斗米道). At court, two powerful groups, the waiqi 外戚 (consort relatives) and the eunuchs, competed for control of the throne. Following the outbreak of a Daoist-inspired Yellow Turban rebellion (184), regional military commanders emerged as the new power-holders, whose struggle for dominance tore China asunder.

Chronology 1: Qin–Eastern Han

770 BCE:	The Qin (based in Shaanxi) sovereign enfeoffed as Duke, posthumously known as Duke of Xiang of Qin 秦襄公.
359–338	Shang Yang 商鞅 carries out reforms under Duke Xiao of Qin 秦孝公.
350	Qin moves its capital to Xianyang 咸陽 (at Xi’an, Shaanxi).
284	Five states invade Qi (based in Shandong) and sacks its capital; Qi begins to decline.
278	Invaded by Qin, Chu (based in Hubei and Hunan) moves its capital to Chen 陳 (Huaiyang, Henan).
256	The last Eastern Zhou king Nan 赧 dies; the Eastern Zhou dynasty ends.
230	Hann 韓 (based in Henan and Shanxi) is conquered by Qin.
225	Wei 魏 (based in Henan and Hebei) is conquered by Qin.
223	Chu is conquered by Qin.
222	Yan (based in Hebei and Liaoning) and Zhao (based in Hebei) are conquered by Qin.
221–207	Qin dynasty
221	Qi is conquered by Qin. The First Emperor, the unifier of China, founds the Qin dynasty; standardizes the currency; divides the realm into 36 jun (commanderies; more will be added later).
214	Qin dislodges the Xiongnu from Henandi 河南地 (the Ordos Loop, Inner Mongolia) and builds the Great Wall.
213	The First Emperor orders the burning of books.
212	The First Emperor orders a large labor force to build palaces in Guanzhong 關中 and elsewhere, among which the Epang 阿房 Palace (in Xi’an) is the most famous; and executes 460-plus scholars.
210	The First Emperor dies. His son Huhai 胡亥 is placed on the throne by Li Si 李斯 and Zhao Gao 趙高. Prince Fusu 扶蘇 is ordered to commit suicide.
209	Chen Sheng 陳勝 and Wu Guang 吳廣, two peasant farmers, rebel; Chen declares himself king. Liu Bang 劉邦 rebels in north Jiangsu; Xiang Yu 項羽 (Xiang Ji 項籍) and his uncle rebel in south Jiangsu.
207	Liu Bang enters Xianyang; the Qin falls.
206	Xiang Yu has emerged as the first among equals. He enfeoffs various warlords as kings, including Liu Bang as the King of Han.
206–202	The post-Qin War between Liu Bang and Xiang Yu.
202 BCE–8 CE	Western Han dynasty
202 BCE	Liu Bang (Gaozu of Han) founds the (Western) Han dynasty with Chang’an (Xi’an) as its capital.
200	Liu Bang is nearly captured by the Xiongnu near Pingcheng 平城 (Datong, Shanxi). The Han adopts an appeasement policy toward the Xiongnu.
195	Liu Bang dies. Power is now in the hands of Empress Lü 呂后.
183	King of Nanyue 南越 (Guangdong, Guangxi, northern Vietnam) Zhao Tuo 趙佗 declares himself emperor.
180	Empress Lü dies. Male members of her clan are purged. Emperor Wen 文帝 succeeds. During his and his successor Emperor Jing’s reigns, the Han implements a policy of “non-action,” with low taxes and little government interference in the economy.
157	Emperor Wen dies, succeeded by Emperor Jing 景帝. Emperor Jing will adopt the proposal from his top adviser Chao Cuo 晁錯 to reduce the size and power of the feudatories.
154	Chao Cuo is executed. The rebellion of the Seven Kingdoms (headed by the kings of Wu and Chu) begins and ends in the same year.
141	Emperor Jing dies, succeeded by Emperor Wu, who will make Confucianism the state ideology.
139–126	Zhang Qian’s 張騫 first mission to the Western Regions.
133–71	The Han-Xiongnu War. Emperor Wu abandons the appeasement policy toward Xiongnu. The Han army defeats the Xiongnu repeatedly, especially in the 124, 123, 121, 119, and 71 (under Emperor Xuan 宣帝) campaigns.
119–115	Zhang Qian’s second mission to the Western Regions.
111	Annexation of Nanyue.
108	The four commanderies of Lelang 樂浪 are set up in northern Korea and Liaoning.
102	The Han brings Dayuan 大宛 (Fergana, Uzbekistan) to submission.
91–90	The witchcraft scandal (wugu zhihuo 巫蠱之禍).
87	Emperor Wu dies.
87–68	The ascendancy of Huo Guang 霍光 who dominates the court under Emperors Zhao 昭帝 (r. 87–74) and Xuan (r. 74–49).
57–56	Xiongnu is weakened significantly due to internal strife.
51	Xiongnu chanyu 單于 (leader) Huhanye 呼韓邪 visited the Han court as a vassal.
1 BCE–8 CE	Wang Mang 王莽 is the true power-holder at court.
8–23 CE	Wang Mang’s Xin dynasty, an interregnum between the two Han dynasties.
9	Wang Mang implements the well-field system.
17	Multiple rebellions break out.
22	Among the rebel armies, the Chimei 赤眉 (Red Eyebrows) and Lülin 綠林 (Green Woods) are the most powerful.
23	Liu Xuan 劉玄 (Gengshi更始) is placed on the throne, with Yuan 宛 city (Nanyang, Henan) as his capital. Wang Mang 王莽 is killed as Chang’an is captured by loyalist rebels.
25–220	Eastern Han dynasty
25	Liu Xiu 劉秀, Emperor Guangwu 光武, takes the imperial title and makes Luoyang his capital. Red Eyebrows rebels kill Emperor Gengshi at Chang’an.
26–29	Guangwu forces the Red Eyebrows to surrender and conquers the warlords of the North China plain and the middle Yangzi. Dou Rong 竇融 in the northwest allies with Guangwu.
30	Abolition of compulsory military service for the inner commanderies (neijun 内郡) of the empire.
32–33	Defeat and death of the northwestern warlord Wei Ao (Xiao) 隗囂.
35–36	The rival emperor Gongsun Shu 公孫述 is destroyed in Shu (Sichuan). Guangwu is the undisputed sovereign of a restored Han empire.
37–45	Xiongnu attacks along the northern frontier.
40–43	Rebellion of the Trung sisters in northern Vietnam.
48–50	Split of the Xiongnu into Northern and Southern Xiongnu; the northern frontier territories are restored
57	Death of Emperor Guangwu, succeeded by his son Emperor Ming 明帝.
69	Submission of the Ailao 哀牢 people in the southwest.
73–75	Expedition against the Northern Xiongnu; failed establishment of a Protectorate-General for the Western Regions.
75	Death of Emperor Ming, succeeded by his son Emperor Zhang 章.
77–101	Wars against the Shaodang Qiang 燒當羌.
88	Death of Emperor Zhang, succeeded by his son Emperor He 和 under the regency of Empress Dowager Dou 竇太后.
89–91	Dou Xian 竇憲 destroys Northern Chanyu.
91	Ban Chao 班超 dominates the Western Regions and is named Protector-General.
92	An imperial coup destroys the Dou clan.
93	Death of Southern Chanyu Tuntuhe 屯屠何 is followed by a revolt among the surrendered Northerners.
94	Ban Chao completes his control of the Tarim basin.
97	Ban Chao sends Gan Ying 甘英 on a mission to Daqin 大秦/Rome.
100	Surrendered Qiang are settled within Liang province 涼州.
102	Ban Chao retires as Protector-General of the Western Regions.
105	Death of Emperor He, followed by the regency of Empress Dowager Deng; she brings Emperor An 安 to the throne but continues to rule until her death.
106	Rebellion in the Western Regions.
107	Orders are given to abandon the Western Regions.
107–118	The Great Qiang rebellion devastates the northwest.
121	Death of the Dowager Deng; Emperor An accedes to power.
125	Death of Emperor An; his dowager Yan 閻 takes power, but a coup by palace eunuchs brings the former heir Liu Bao 劉保, Emperor Shun 順, to the throne.
135	Liang Shang 梁商, father of Emperor Shun’s empress, is appointed General- in-Chief and head of the administration.
140–144	Rebellions among the Qiang and Xiongnu; much of the northwest is left without effective government.
141	Liang Shang dies, succeeded as General-in-Chief by his son Liang Ji 梁冀.
142	Zhang Daoling 张道陵 founds the Daoist movement, known as the Way of Five Pecks of Rice (wudoumi dao 五斗米道).
144	Death of Emperor Shun; aided by Liang Ji, Empress Dowager Liang holds regency power for a series of minor emperors.
146	Empress Dowager Liang and Liang Ji bring Liu Zhi 劉志, Emperor Huan 桓, to the throne.
147	Liu Zhi is married to Liang Nüying 梁女瑩, younger sister of the empress dowager.
150	Death of Empress Dowager Liang; Liang Ji continues to dominate the government; vast expansion of the imperial harem.
159	Death of Empress Liang; aided by palace eunuchs, Emperor Huan destroys Liang Ji and takes over the government; Deng Mengnü 鄧猛女 is appointed empress; five eunuchs are enfeoffed.
159–166	Zhang Huan 張奐 and Huangfu Gui 皇甫規 maintain a measure of security in the north.
160	Execution of Li Yun 李雲 and Du Zhong 杜眾.
163	Some eunuch associates are punished for excessive conduct in the provinces.
166	Arrest and execution of anti-eunuch officials.
167	First Faction Incident.
167–169	Duan Jiong 段熲 slaughters the Qiang.
168	Following the death of Emperor Huan, the regent Dowager Dou and her father Dou Wu 竇武 bring the young Emperor Ling 靈 to the throne. Eunuch forces led by Cao Jie 曹節 overthrow the Dou group and thereafter control the government.
169	Second Faction Incident and the beginning of the Great Proscription (danggu 黨錮).
170s	Raiding by Xianbei commanded by Tanshihuai 檀石槐.
172	Purge of the University (Grand Academy).
175	Commissioning of the Stone Classics project (Xiping shijing 熹平石經).
177	Failed expedition against the confederacy of Tanshihuai.
178	Endorsement of the School at the Gate of the Vast Capital (Hongdumen xue 鴻都門學) as a route for entry to the imperial service; Emperor Ling introduces a program for the sale of offices.
184	Yellow Turban religious rebels commanded by Zhang Jue (Jiao) 張角 ravage eastern China; they are defeated by imperial forces with heavy loss of life.
188	Mutiny and rebellion in Liang province in the northwest.
189	The Southern Chanyu is killed by rebels and the Xiongnu state falls into disorder.
190	Death of Emperor Ling; his son Liu Bian 劉辯 is brought to the throne under the regency of his mother Empress Dowager He and her brother He Jin 何進; He Jin is assassinated by eunuchs; his troops attack the imperial palaces and kill the eunuchs. Seizing control, Dong Zhuo 董卓 deposes Liu Bian (Emperor Shao 少) and sets Liu Xie (Emperor Xian 獻) upon the throne.
190	Yuan Shao 袁紹 and other loyalists raise troops against Dong Zhuo and establish warlord states.
220	Emperor Xian is forced to abdicate in favor of Cao Pi 曹丕, son of the warlord Cao Cao, who founds the Wei (Cao-Wei) dynasty.

1
THE QIN DYNASTY (221–206 BCE)

Charles Sanft

The state of Qin before 221 BCE

The Qin dynasty was the foundational dynasty for the entire imperial period, if for no other reason than it established the structures and processes that were the starting point for all that followed.¹ There were, inevitably, changes to all aspects of these systems over time. Yet there was a degree of continuity, stretching perhaps even to the present. The state of Qin was prominent throughout the Warring States period of disunity in the area that would become China. The story of the Qin dynasty, however, begins in the fourth century BCE, well before its founding ended the Warring States.

The coming together of political figures and practices beginning in the fourth century BCE had a synergistic result that in the third century propelled the Qin past its competitors. In many ways the Qin emergence is typical of all historical development, in that it grew out of broad and long-term changes (Map 1.1).

Map 1.1 The Qin Empire. (See Tan Qixiang, vol. 2, 3–4.)

The idea of political unification was not exclusive to the Qin. It grew out of long-standing philosophical discussions and debates about the nature of rulership and governance.² The military potency of the Qin has long been at the center of that dynasty’s historiography. This is largely a result of Han writers’ portrayals, which sought to define the dynasty in terms of violence and warfare. This belies the foundational position of the Qin dynasty in the history...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• List of maps
• List of tables
• List of contributors
• Introduction
• Bibliography: general
• Bibliography: historical novels
• PART I Early Imperial China (Qin–Five Dynasties)
• PART II Late Imperial China (Song–Qing)
• Glossary-Index