Pagans and Christians in Late Antiquity

A Sourcebook

A. D. Lee

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2015
• ISBN:
  9781317408611
• Edition: 2
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Ancient History
• Index: History

In Pagans and Christians in Late Antiquity, A.D. Lee documents the transformation of the religious landscape of the Roman world from one of enormous diversity of religious practices and creeds in the 3rd century to a situation where, by the 6th century, Christianity had become the dominant religious force. Using translated extracts from contemporary sources he examines the fortunes of pagans and Christians from the upheavals of the 3rd Century, through the dramatic events associated with the emperors Constantine, Julian and Theodosius in the 4th, to the increasingly tumultuous times of the 5th and 6th centuries, while also illustrating important themes in late antique Christianity such as the growth of monasticism, the emerging power of bishops and the development of pilgrimage, as well as the fate of other significant religious groups including Jews and Manichaeans.

This new edition has been updated to include:

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• additional documentary material, including newly published papyri

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• an expanded chapter on the emperor Constantine

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• greater attention to church controversies in the fourth and fifth centuries

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• thoroughly updated references and further reading, taking into account developments in modern scholarship during the past fifteen years.

Pagans and Christians in Late Antiquity is an invaluable resource for students of the late antique world, and of early Christianity and the early Church.

Part I

PAGANS AND CHRISTIANS THROUGH TIME

1

PAGANS IN THE THIRD CENTURY

The aim of this chapter is to sketch some of the salient features of pagan religious life during the third century and to convey some sense of its diversity. It begins with a calendar of festivals (1.1) which, among other things, shows how religion impinged on people’s lives throughout the year. This is followed by illustrative examples of important practices associated with civic cults – sacrifice (1.2) and alternatives (1.3, 1.4), the role of music (1.5, 1.6), and processions (1.7). More private expressions of devotion are exemplified by some texts relating to the goddess Isis (1.8), while the next two items highlight common motivations for individuals having recourse to the gods – ill-health (1.9) and anxieties about the future (1.10). A different type of common religious engagement is reflected in the evidence for resort to magic, exemplified here by a curse tablet (1.11). Part of a temple inventory is presented in 1.12 to show how these institutions came to acquire considerable material resources.

A different aspect of third-century paganism is reflected in the philosophical school of Neoplatonism, as represented by its leading light Plotinus (1.13), and also by his student Porphyry, who was critical of some aspects of pagan religious observance, especially sacrifice (1.14). The monotheistic tendencies of Neoplatonism were paralleled in popular religious practices directed to the worship of the ‘highest god’ (1.15), recognition of which has prompted increasing interest in the phenomenon of ‘pagan monotheism’.

All these items are drawn from the third century (or occasionally the late second century), but nearly all could be paralleled by examples from earlier centuries. The remaining items in the chapter focus on matters more specific to the third century. First, some texts are presented relating to the mystery cult of Mithras (1.16) which, though already growing in importance in the second century, particularly flourished in the third. Second, an inscription relating to the emperor Decius (249–51) is discussed (1.17), since his brief reign was marked by a concerted attempt to unite the empire in traditional religious observances. Third, some texts relating to the cult of the Sun are included (1.18) – a cult that came to prominence in the 270s and has sometimes been seen as a significant precursor of Christianity’s official acceptance.

Finally, mention should be made of an overarching issue for third-century paganism, namely its vitality or otherwise. The significant decline of epigraphic evidence from the middle decades of the third century was seen by scholars in the first half of the twentieth century as reflecting a decline in people’s faith in the old gods under the impact of inflation and foreign invasion on unprecedented scales (e.g., Geffcken 1978 [originally written in 1920]). More recent studies have seen a shift away from such views to an emphasis on the continuing vigour of third-century paganism in the face of testing times (MacMullen 1981: 126–30; Lane Fox 1986: 572–85). This is a contentious issue, certainly not easy to illustrate, let alone settle, in a necessarily selective anthology such as this, but it is an important question to bear in mind in relation to both the material in this chapter and that in Chapter 3 (on the late third and early fourth centuries). For further reading on (late) Roman paganism in general, see Geffcken 1978; MacMullen 1981; Lane Fox 1986: chs 2–5; Beard et al. 1998: vol. 1; Hopkins 1999.

1.1 A religious calendar: P. Dura 54 (Cols 1–2)

The well-known document from which this passage comes was part of a cache of papyri found at the Roman frontier fortress of Dura-Europos on the Euphrates, and sets out the calendar of religious rites observed by the military unit stationed there in the mid-220s (a recent suggestion that it was in fact a civil calendar [Reeves 2004] does not appear to have gained acceptance). Despite Dura’s peripheral location, it is generally accepted that this document was not specific to this particular unit, but rather was ‘a standard festival list for the army, simply one representative of a type issued to every camp and garrison’ (Fink et al. 1940: 28; cf. Fishwick 1988). As such, despite being damaged and therefore incomplete, it provides invaluable insights into important features of Roman religious practices during the early centuries AD, notably reverence for the traditional deities of Rome, the role of regular sacrifice, the emphasis on the imperial cult, and the prominence of ‘supplication’ – the offering of incense and wine to a deity (on which see Fink et al. 1940: 193–202 and 1.4). The document dates from the reign of the emperor Severus Alexander (222–35), which is why so many of the celebrations relate to key events in his own life or the lives of earlier members, male and female, of the Severan dynasty. Even earlier emperors (denoted by the term ‘deified’) going back to Claudius are also included to emphasise continuity and help legitimate his rule – especially important vis-à-vis the army. Moreover, since the Roman army had increasingly come to be recruited from outside the Italian peninsula, the calendar also serves to illustrate how large numbers of provincials became familiar with aspects of traditional Roman religious observances. Further reading: Fink et al. 1940; Welles et al. 1959: 191–212; Haynes 2013: 199–206.

[Column 1]

<On the Kalends of January [1 January] . . . >

<On the 3rd day before the Nones of January [3 January], because> vows are <discharged and pronounced> both for the well-being <of our Lord Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander Augustus and for the> perpetual continuance of the empire of the Roman people: <to Jupiter the Best and Greatest an ox, to Queen Juno a cow, to Minerva a cow, to Jupiter the Victor> an ox, . . . <to Mars the Father a bull, to Mars the Victor> a bull; to Victory a cow. . . .

<On the 7th day before the Ides> of January [7 January], <because honourable discharge with enjoyment of> privileges is given to those who have completed their service and <pay> is counted out <to the soldiers: to Jupiter the Best and Greatest an ox, to Juno a cow, to Minerva> a cow, to Well-being (Salus) a cow, to Mars the Father a bull. . . .

On the 6th day before <the Ides> of January [8 January], for the birthday of the <deified, . . . for the deified . . . > a supplication.

<On the . . . day before the . . . > of January [9/23 January], for the birthday of <Lucius . . . Caesar . . . >: . . . of Lucius . . . Caesar. . . .

On the 9th day before <the Kalends> of February [24 January], for the birthday of <the deified Hadrian: to the deified Hadrian, an ox>.

On the 5th day before the Kalends of February [28 January], for the <Arabian, Adiabenic, and very great Parthian> victories of the deified Severus and for <the accession of the deified Trajan: to Victory> over Parthia a cow, <to the deified Trajan an ox>.

On the day before the Nones of February [4 February], for <the accession of the deified Antoninus the Great [Caracalla]>, a supplication: to the deified Antoninus the Great, an ox.

On the Kalends of March [1 March], for the <birthday observances of Mars the Father and Victor: to Mars> the Father and Victor, a bull.

On the day before the Nones of March [6 March], for the accession <of the deified Marcus Antoninus and the deified Lucius Verus>: to the deified Marcus, an ox; <to the deified Lucius>, an ox.

On the 3rd day before the Ides of March [13 March], because the emperor <Caesar Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander> was acclaimed emperor: to Jupiter an ox, <to Juno a cow, to Minerva a cow, . . . > to Mars an ox; and because Alexander our Augustus was <first> hailed as victorious general (imperator) by the soldiers of our lord Augustus <the emperor Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander>: a supplication. . . .

<On the day before> the Ides of <March> [14 March], because Alexander our <Augustus> was <acclaimed Augustus, Father of his Country, and> Chief Priest (pontifex maximus), a supplication: <to the guardian spirit (genius) of our lord> Alexander Augustus a bull. . . .

[Column 2]

On the 14th day before the Kalends of April [19 March], for the day of the Quinquatria [in honour of Minerva], a supplication: until the 10th day before the Kalends of April [23 March], the same a supplication.

On the day before the Nones of April [4 April], for the birthday of the deified Antoninus the Great: to the deified Antoninus an ox.

On the 5th day before the Ides of April [9 April], for the accession of the deified Pius Severus: to the deified Pius Severus an ox.

On the 3rd day before the Ides of April [11 April], for the birthday of the deified Pius Severus: to the deified Pius Severus an ox.

On the 11th day before the Kalends of May [21 April], for the birthday of the eternal City of Rome: <to the eternal City of Rome an ox>.

On the 6th day before the Kalends of May [26 April], for the birthday of the deified Marcus Antoninus: <to the deified Marcus> Antoninus <an ox>.

On the Nones of May [7 May], for the birthday of the deified Julia Maesa: to the <deified> Maesa a supplication.

On the 6th day before the Ides of May [10 May], for the Rose Festival of the legionary standards, a supplication.

On the 4th day before the Ides of May [12 May], for the games in honour of Mars: to Mars the Father and Avenger a bull.

On the 12th day before the Kalends of June [21 May], because the deified Severus was hailed as victorious general (imperator) . . . : to the deified Pius Severus. . . .

On the 9th day before the Kalends of June [24 May], for the birthday of Germanicus Caesar, a supplication in memory of Germanicus Caesar.

On the day before the Kalends of June [31 May], for the Rose Festival of the legionary standards, a supplication.

On the 5th day before the Ides of June [9 June], for the festival in honour of Vesta: to Mother Vesta a supplication.

On the 6th day before the Kalends of July [26 June], because our lord Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander was acclaimed Caesar and assumed the adult toga: to the guardian spirit (genius) of Alexander Augustus a bull.

On the Kalends of July [1 July], because Alexander our Augustus was appointed consul for the first time, a supplication.

<On the 3rd day> before the Nones of July [4 July], for the birthday of the deified Matidia: to the deified Matidia a supplication.

<On the 6th day before the Ides> of July [10 July], for the accession of the deified Antoninus Pius: to the deified Antoninus an ox.

<On the 4th day before the Ides> of July [12 July], for the birthday of the deified Julius: to the deified Julius an ox.

<On the 10th day before the Kalends> of August [23 July], for the day of the festival in honour of Neptune, a supplication and a sacrifice.

<On the Kalends of August [1 August], for> the birthday of the deified Claudius and the deified Pertinax: to the deified Claudius an ox, <to the deified Pertinax> an ox.

<On the Nones of August [5 August]>, for <the games> in honour of Well-being: to Well-being a cow.

<On the . . . day before the Kalends> of September [14/29 August], for the birthday of Mamaea <Augusta>, mother of our Augustus: to the guardian spirit (Juno) of Mamaea Augusta <a cow . . . >

<On the . . . day before the Kalends> of September [15/30 August], for the birthday of the deified Marciana: to the <deified> Marciana <a supplication>

1.2 Animal sacrifice: relief from the Arch of Septimius Severus, Lepcis Magna, North Africa

Figure 1.2 Relief from the Arch of Septimius Severus, Lepcis Magna

Source: German Archaeological Institute, Rome (DAI-ROM 61.1699)

This relief (1.72 m high) from the early third century (probably 203) shows an animal in the process of being slaughtered, a ritual of fundamental importance in traditional Roman cult practice (Figure 1.2). The relief conflates two moments in the process – one assistant, standing behind the animal, swings a mallet to stun the animal, while a second, kneeling beside the felled animal, plunges a knife into its neck. In this case, the ritual is taking place in the presence of members of the imperial family, for the female figure on the left has been identified as Septimius Severus’ wife, Julia Domna, in the process of offering incense from the jar in her left hand. Immediately to her left is a flute-player – a reminder of the musical dimension of these rituals. For further discussion of this relief, see Ryberg 1955: 160–2, Gordon 1990: 214–15; for more general discussion of sacrifice in the Roman world, see Lane Fox 1986: 69–72; Beard et al. 1998: vol. 1, 350–51, vol. 2, 148–50.

1.3 Substituting for animal sacrifice: CMRDM I.50

This inscription comes from the lower half of a marble stele (88 cm high) found in the west Anatolian region of Lydia, where reverence for the moon-god Me-n was particularly prevalent (on the cult of Me-n generally, see Lane 1990). The stele was inscribed in the first half of the third century (the number of years in the dating formula at the end refers to the time elapsed since the region was re-conquered from Mithridates by Sulla in 85 BC), and illustrates the fundamental principle of offering a god something in return for the god’s help, though here with an interesting twist. In this case, the female devotee proved unable to fulfil directly her vow to sacrifice a bull, no doubt on grounds of expense, and instead dedicated a marble stele, presumably considered an appropriate substitute because the upper half depicts the god Me-n approached by a bull (for a photograph, see Lane 1971: Plate XXII):

To Mēn Axiottenos. Tatiane, daughter of Erpos, promised a bull as an offering on behalf of her brothers and having been heard [by the god], but being unable to give the bull, she asked the god, and he agreed, to accept this stele. In the year 320, on the 10th day of the month Panemos [2 June 236].

1.4 Offering incense: fresco from the Temple of Bel, Dura-Europos

Figure 1.4 Sacrifice of Julius Terentius (copy by L. North). Temple of Bel, Dura-Europos

Source: Yale University Art Gallery, Dura-Europos Archive

The early third-century painting (1.75 x 1 m) of which the accompanying picture (Figure 1.4) is a restored drawing was found on one of the walls in the Temple of Bel in the north-west corner of the Roman fortress of Dura-Europos on the Euphrates. It depicts a Roman tribune, named on the painting (in Latin) as Julius Terentius, offering incense on an altar. He is accompanied by soldiers to the right and a standard-bearer to the left, while the man standing behind Terentius is identified in the painting (in Greek) as ‘the priest Themes, son of Mokimos’. The female figures with turreted crowns in the lower left-hand corner are named as the guardian deities of Palmyra and of Dura, below whom are personifications of Palmyra’s underground springs (female) and of the Euphrates (male) (the military unit stationed at Dura in the third century was recruited from Palmyra). In the upper left-hand corner are three statues which are the object of reverence on the part of Terentius and his men. Traditionally, these have been identified as Palmyrene deities, but it has been persuasively argued more recently that they are representations of Roman emperors, probably Pupienus, Balbinus and Gordian III who briefly reigned together in 238 (Pekáry 1986). On this interpretation, the picture shows the imperial cult in action, more specifically an act of supplication such as referred to at many points in 1.1. The advantage of this sort of cult offering over animal sacrifice was that it ‘was in every man’s power, practically whenever and wherever he pleased. Its cheapness and convenience allowed many more to take a personal part in religious observances – which was felt to be particularly desirable in the case of emperor-worship’ (Fink et al. 1940: 195). For the alternative possibility that the recipients of the sacrifice are Palmyrene deities, not Roman emperors, see Kaizer 2006. (For a colour image of the (recently restored) original fresco, see http://artgallery.yale.edu/collections/objects/julius-terentius-perfo...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Half Title page
• Series Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Contents
• Figures
• Preface to the Second Edition
• Preface to the Original Edition
• Acknowledgements
• Conventions and Abbreviations
• List of Emperors
• Glossary
• Introduction
• Part I Pagans and Christians Through Time
• Part II Other Religious Groups
• Part III Themes in Late Antique Christianity
• Editions
• Index Of Sources
• General Index