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CHAPTER
1 | ICT and computing in the primary school |
In this chapter we will define ICT and computing and the key components of each. We will then consider the unique features and capabilities of ICT and begin to examine how pupils and teachers could use them in the primary school to replace or enhance current learning experiences.
Introduction
It was a relatively short time ago that Information and Communications Technology (ICT) took its place in the curriculum of the primary school in the United Kingdom (UK). More recently, as we have just seen, computing has to a greater or lesser extent taken its place, but, as Turvey et al. (2014, p4) remind us, âit can be argued that the focused and specific construction of the new programme of study for computing as a subject . . . Now leaves more room for innovation in ICTâ, defined as âthe broader application of digital technologies to enhance learning throughout the curriculumâ. This can be achieved as ICT is a âcomplex tool which can be used by teachers and by pupils in teaching and learningâ (Higgins, 2001, p164). To enable this complex tool to be used effectively, however, teachers have to develop practical ICT and computing skills both during their training and throughout their career. This is not only to use ICT in the classroom, but also to teach pupils new skills.
As hardware and software develop, the skills required also change, and any book that deals with specific hardware resources or software packages is out of date very quickly. What changes less quickly, and is arguably more important, is the pedagogic thinking that underpins the use of both hardware and software by both pupils and teachers. This book is primarily concerned with the latter and is not intended to equip you with practical ICT or computing skills. It should, however, allow you to critically explore the fundamental principles behind the ways in which ICT and computing can help in developing effective teaching and learning in early years settings and primary schools. This exploration will be based on evidence from international research and practical experience gained in a wide range of learning settings. Although part of this exploration will help address some Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) standards, the main intention is to examine how ICT (including computing) can be used as an effective pedagogic tool at any point in your career. It should also help you if you are studying the use of educational technology in any context, as many of the principles outlined will be equally applicable to all ages.
The introduction of new technology, such as tablet devices into the classroom, as well as technological advances allowing personal computers (PCs) and other mobile devices to become faster, smaller and easier to use, has been rapid. As John and Sutherland (2005, p406) point out, âin recent years the emergence of new digital technologies has offered up the possibility of extending and deepening classroom learning in ways hitherto unimaginedâ. These possibilities have ensured that opportunities and challenges have presented themselves to teachers and pupils in equal measure. One of the most important advances has been in the increased availability and speed of access to the internet, which, together with other advances in mobile and other technologies, has enabled the development of e-learning opportunities. Definitions of e-learning vary, and Mayes and de Freitas (2007, p13) go so far as to suggest that âthere are really no models of e-learning per se â only e-enhancements of existing models of learningâ. In this book we will examine a range of such enhancements but, given the pervasive (and contested) nature of e-learning, we will adopt Holmes and Gardnerâs (2006, p14) simple definition as âonline access to learning resources, anywhere and anytimeâ.
Alongside technical developments, there have also been changes in thinking about education in general terms, specifically in the early years and more generally in the role pupils play in their own learning. In 2009, the âRose Reviewâ in England (DCSF, 2009, p9) concluded that âprimary children relish learning independently and co-operativelyâ. Although the report itself was ultimately rejected, research evidence examined below will show that such an approach remains beneficial. In this context, the roles of teachers and learners have evolved to reflect greater autonomy for pupils and a more facilitating role for teachers. In other words, education is not something that is done to children, but is something that is done with them as active partners who are able to influence the course of their learning.
Many advocates of ICT in education would share this view and adopt a socio-cultural perspective in which learning is situated and socially constructed (Vygotsky, 1978). Beauchamp and Kennewell (2010) suggest that the classroom is an ecology of resources, defined by Luckin (2008, p451) as âa set of inter-related resource elements, including people and objects, the interactions between which provide a particular contextâ. This perspective will be considered in more detail in Chapter 2, but at this stage it is important to note that a key part of a socio-cultural perspective is the assertion that âtoolsâ, both âtechnicalâ and âcognitiveâ, play a central role in mediating human action. Although language remains the most important cultural tool, other tools can include paper, books, pens and, of course, ICT resources. It is the ability of ICT to provide a range of tools in one place (such as the interactive whiteboard (IWB), mobile handheld or tablet device) that makes it such an important means of mediating learning. However, as Wertsch (1991, p119) points out, âonly by being part of action do mediational means come into being and play their role. They have no magical power in and of themselves.â In other words, ICT tool(s) need to be actively involved in achieving both activity and outcomes in lessons; just using them is not enough. It is also important that all people are involved in their use. If we return to the idea that learning is socially constructed, we see the importance of everyone in the classroom using ICT to construct (and even deconstruct) knowledge and understanding. A belief that pupils should assume some responsibility for, and control over, their learning would also apply to the use of the relevant âtoolsâ. As part of this process, ICT has evolved from being a subject that was taught by teachers to learners, or a resource or tool âownedâ by the teacher, to become a shared resource or tool for learning and teaching by both. Such a change requires teachers to examine both their pedagogic beliefs and classroom practice, especially how they plan and use ICT in learning.
This change in âownershipâ of ICT and its implications will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 2, but before this I want you to imagine arriving at school (early, of course!) and finding that the classroom projector bulb has blown and the internet connection is not working. Worse still, you have forgotten your memory device with all your resources for lessons. Could you still teach effective lessons? The answer, of course, is yes, which poses the question: do we really need ICT in the primary school and early years settings? It may seem somewhat strange to start a book about ICT by asking this fundamental question, but in addressing it we begin to identify why we should use ICT, how and when it should be used, and who should use it to best improve learning and teaching. In answering these questions we also need to examine the relationship between ICT and computing. Unfortunately, this is not straightforward as, although ICT is already a familiar term as an established part of the curriculum in the primary school, âterms like computing, computer programming, and computational thinking are often used interchangeably, [which] may cause definitional confusion . . . [and] . . . these terms are sometimes used to describe other educational technology applications and general use of software such as word processingâ (Israel et al., 2015, p263).
As with much specialist vocabulary employed in the curriculum, however, it is necessary to understand both what it means and how terms relate to each other in a way that can be translated into classroom activities. It is necessary, therefore, to briefly explore different definitions of key terms used in primary curricula (specifically computational thinking, computer programming, digital literacy/competence computing and computer science) before moving on to examine ICT more generally.
Computational thinking
We will begin with computational thinking, as although â[c]omputational thinking lies at the heart of the computing curriculum . . . it also supports learning and thinking in other areas of the curriculumâ (CAS, 2015, p5) and âis in line with many aspects of 21st century competencies such as creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solvingâ (Lye and Koh, 2014, p52). Reassuringly, primary teachers already use computational thinking in the way they approach teaching and learning, but perhaps do not realise they are doing so. For instance, it is not unusual to ask pupils to think carefully about a problem and to break it down into smaller parts, focusing on the important things and ignoring unnecessary details. They then use new ideas, together with patterns or sequences they know from previous work, to create new ideas in a given format â such as solving a maths problem, planning a story or composing a piece of music. They will often do this by using approaches such as experimenting or playing with ideas, trying out these ideas (debugging) to see if they work, and persevering and collaborating before evaluating the finished product. In essence, computational thinking (CT) is applying these same skills and approaches, but they have specific âlabelsâ in the context of CT.
Unfortunately, the way these labels are used is not straightforward, and Grover and Pea (2013, p38) highlight the âdefinitional confusion that has plagued CT as a phraseâ. They continue to provide their own definition and suggest that, in essence, CT âis thinking like a computer scientist when confronted with a problemâ (ibid., p39). However, if you do not know how a computer scientist thinks, this does not help us much! Voogt et al. (2015, p720) suggest that all definitions of CT have a common âfocus on the skills, habits and dispositions needed to solve complex problems . . . with the help of computing . . . and computersâ, but we need to identify the skills, habits and dispositions in more detail to fully understand what CT is and how it might apply in the classroom.
Computing At School attempts to explain this by suggesting that CT is about
applying tools and techniques from computing to understand and reason about natural, social and artificial systems and processes. It allows pupils to tackle problems, to break them down into solvable chunks and to devise algorithms to solve them . . . It concentrates on pupils performing a thought process, not on the production of artefacts or evidence. Computational thinking is the development of thinking skills and it supports learning and understanding.
(CAS, 2015, pp5â6)
After reviewing relevant academic literature, Selby and Woollard (2013) identify the key components of computational thinking when they propose that it is
an activity, often product oriented, associated with, but not limited to, problem solving. It is a cognitive or thought process that reflects
⢠the ability to think in abstractions,
⢠the ability to think in terms of decomposition,
⢠the ability to think algorithmically,
⢠the ability to think in terms of evaluations, and
⢠the ability to think in generalisations.
Aho (2012, p832) provides a more succinct summary when stating that computational thinking is âthe thought processes involved in formulating problems so their solutions can be represented as computational steps and algorithmsâ. Put more simply still...
