Military Leadership

In Pursuit of Excellence

Robert L. Taylor

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2018
• ISBN:
  9780429974632
• Edition: 6
• Topic: Politics & International Relations
• Subtopic: Politics
• Index: Politics & International Relations

The sixth edition of this classic text continues its popular interdisciplinary approach to the topic of leadership by examining fundamental elements of military leadership: the 'process' of leadership, the dynamic personal interactions between leader and followers, and the individual and organizational values that foster effective military leadership. Military Leadership provides a thoroughly reconsidered and greatly expanded mix of classic and contemporary articles as well as original essays, with authors representing all of the services. Incisive introductory essays to each section highlight themes and connections. Eric B. Rosenbach joins the editorial team for this edition, helping infuse the text with fresh perspectives. The essays of the sixth edition confront the kudos and criticisms that surround military leadership today, offer international viewpoints, and relate military leadership to contemporary leadership theory and approaches.

PART ONE

LEADERSHIP

Perspectives and Context

ALTHOUGH LEADERSHIP IS A WIDELY discussed and often-studied discipline, little agreement exists among scholars or practitioners about what defines it. Concepts of leadership are either disarmingly simple or awesomely complex. In fact, there are almost as many definitions of leadership as there are people attempting to define it. Yet, we know good leadership when we experience or observe it. In 1978, Pulitzer Prize winner James MacGregor Burns wrote that we know a lot about leaders, yet very little about leadership. Lieutenant General Walter F. Ulmer Jr., former president and CEO of the Center for Creative Leadership, believes that we know more than we used to about leaders but that much of our knowledge is superficial and fails to examine the deeper realms of character and motivation that drive leaders, particularly in difficult times.

Understanding leadership begins with examining what leadership is not. Leadership is not hierarchical, top-down, or based on positional power and authority. Although effective commanders must practice good leadership and effective leaders must possess command skills, leadership is not command or some part or principle of it. To understand leadership, one must understand its essential nature: the process of the leader and followers engaging in reciprocal influence to achieve a shared purpose. Leadership is all about getting people to work together to make things happen that might not otherwise occur or to prevent things from happening that would ordinarily take place.

Looking through the history of the study of leadership, we find that the earliest coherent thrust centered on an approach now referred to as the Great Man or Great Person Theory. For a full generation, leadership scholars concentrated on identifying the traits associated with great leaders. At first it seemed obvious: Are not great leaders exceptionally intelligent, unusually energetic, far above the norm in their ability to communicate, and so on? However, when these “obvious” propositions were subjected to test, they all proved false. Yes, leaders were a bit more intelligent than the average person, but not much more. And yes, they were more energetic and dynamic—but not significantly so. True, they were better-than-average public speakers with some charm, but again their overall advantage was not very great. And so it went: Each of these and other leadership myths evaporated under the glare of scientific scrutiny.

What followed was a focus on the behavior of leaders. If the key was not who they were, perhaps the crux of leadership could be found in what they did. In fact, researchers identified two crucial types of leader behavior: behavior centered on task accomplishment and behavior directed toward interpersonal relations. Their peers typically reported individuals who consistently exhibited high levels of both of these types of behaviors as leaders. Those who engaged in a high level of task-related behavior but only an average level of relationship-centered behavior sometimes still were designated leaders. Peers rarely designated those who engaged only in a high level of relationship behavior as leaders. Finally, those who did little in the way of either task or relationship-centered activity were never seen as leaders.

Some took a new path, suggesting that leadership effectiveness might require different combinations of task and relationship behavior in different situations. Theoretically, the most effective combination would depend upon certain situational factors, such as the nature of the task and the ability of employees reporting to a certain supervisor. Another somewhat different path was to combine the situational hypothesis with some variation of the personal-characteristics approach. Like earlier attempts, however, those efforts to explain effective leadership met with limited results.

Interestingly, the theme of focusing on relationship and task behaviors is common to the many theories developed over the past decades. The attempts to develop predictive and prescriptive models led to serious research and popular fads as scholars worked to solve the leadership puzzle. As popular literature focused on leadership tools and techniques, we noted that most people remained skeptical about leaders and leadership. Thus, we ask, what have we really learned?

In this book we distinguish between two basic types of leadership. Transactional leadership clarifies the role followers must play both to attain the organization’s desired outcomes and to receive valued personal rewards for satisfactory performance, giving them the confidence necessary to achieve those outcomes and rewards. Transactional leadership is the equitable transaction or exchange between the leader and followers whereby the leader influences the followers by focusing on the self-interests of both. The leader’s self-interest is satisfactory performance, and the followers’ self-interests are the valued rewards for good performance. Used well, and in appropriate situations, transactional leadership is simply good management and might be considered managerial leadership.

Transformational or transforming leadership involves strong personal identification of followers with the leader. The transformational leader motivates followers to perform beyond expectations by creating an awareness of the importance of the mission and the vision in such a way that followers share beliefs and values and can transcend self-interests to tie the vision to self-esteem and self-actualization, both higher-order needs. Transformational leaders create a mental picture of the shared vision in the minds of the followers through the use of language that has deep meaning from shared experiences. In addition, they are role models: In their daily actions they set an example and give meaning to shared assumptions, beliefs, and values. Transformational leaders empower or, better yet, enable followers to perform beyond expectations by sharing power and authority and ensuring that followers understand how to use them. These leaders are committed to developing the followers into partners. In the end, transformational leaders enable followers to transform purpose into action.

In “Leadership” (Chapter 1), Brigadier General Lincoln C. Andrews’s 1918 answer to the question “What then is your first consideration, if you wish to succeed in the military service?” is summed up by his declaration that in all dealings with one’s “men,” the team captain must have their respect, unhesitating obedience, and, if one is man enough to win it, their enthusiastic loyalty. This opening chapter is included to demonstrate how expectations and perspectives of military leaders have and have not changed over a period of almost one hundred years.

General S. L. A. Marshall writes in “Leaders and Leadership” (Chapter 2) that great military leaders of the past possessed a set of inner qualities rather than outward marks of greatness. Relatively few leaders were acclaimed for leadership in their early years; Marshall’s thesis is that most successful leaders are molded by the influences around them and that they have the average person’s faults and vices. Leaders have a common desire for substantial recognition (ego) and the will to earn it fairly. Too often, people with great inner strength hold in contempt those who are less well endowed by nature than they are and, hence, fail as leaders. He cites courage, humor, presence, and integrity as the ingredients for successful military leadership.

In “What Makes a Leader?” (Chapter 3), Daniel Goleman, the premier expert on emotional intelligence, describes why emotional intelligence is the crucial component of leadership and how it is displayed in leaders. Superb leaders have very different ways of leading, and each situation calls for a different style of leadership. The author has found, however, that effective leaders are alike in one crucial way: They all have a high degree of what has come to be known as emotional intelligence. Goleman discusses each component of emotional intelligence and shows how to recognize it in potential leaders and how it can be learned. The concept is one with great relevance to military leaders.

Unlike many writers, James L. Stokesbury uniquely differentiates leadership from headship or command in “Leadership as an Art” (Chapter 4). He focuses on the leader as a person and does not address those who merely serve (as “heads”) in leadership positions. In an attempt to define leadership, he says we are trapped by the inadequacies of the language and often wind up with a tautological definition. Stokesbury deals with this dilemma by defining leadership as an art and by suggesting that the best method for learning about leadership is to study the examples provided by history. He chose four historic leaders: the Marquis of Montrose, Alexander Suvorov, Robert E. Lee, and Philippe Pétain, all of whom had little in common other than attributes Stokesbury believes constitute the art of leadership. He concludes by observing that the highest elements of leadership remain an art, whereas the lesser elements can be learned scientifically and can be treated by artifice. He ironically observes that the better the times, the less artifice works, and the more art is needed.

In “Reality Leadership” (Chapter 5), John Charles Kunich and Dr. Richard

I. Lester argue that despite myriad opinions, leadership is neither mystical nor mysterious. They examine the reality of leadership by attempting to explain that the core of leadership makes a difference, creates positive change, moves people to get things accomplished, and gets rid of everything else that does not contribute to the mission.

Earl H. Potter III and William E. Rosenbach present their conceptual model of followership in “Followers as Partners: Ready When the Time Comes” (Chapter 6). They describe effective followers as partners who are committed to taking the initiative for high performance and healthy relationships with their leaders. The authors argue that leaders who encourage partnerships as well as followers who seek to be partners characterize leaders whose organizations thrive in the rapidly changing global environment.

In “Leaders, Managers, and Command Climate” (Chapter 7), Lieutenant General Walter F. Ulmer Jr. defines climate in terms of the leader’s example and the performance standards expected in a group or organization. How well people adapt to the climate can be changed by altering leadership and managerial habits of senior officers, for they set the standards of performance. It is still the combination of leadership and management that moves from routine good intentions to routine best practices that will make a difference. He advocates credible standardized methods for evaluating command climate and leader development.

As mysterious as leadership remains, the American military has somehow sustained momentum for systematic leadership development throughout the ranks that few institutions in the world have equaled.

★ ★ ★ 1 ★ ★ ★

Leadership

Brigadier General Lincoln C. Andrews

WHAT THEN IS YOUR FIRST consideration, if you wish to succeed in the military service? To fit yourself to be team captain of your group, be it squad, platoon, or company. To be a good team captain requires first that you be a good disciplinarian, next that you acquire and use those qualities that characterize natural leaders of men. In all dealings with your men you must have their respect, unhesitating obedience, and, if you are man enough to win it, their enthusiastic loyalty.

To attain the confidence and respect of your men, the first requisite is superior knowledge. That will give you the self-confidence to appear as a leader, and will justify your men in following you. Therefore never appear before them unprepared to play your part in the game. You are a sorry object pretending to lead when there are men in ranks who know your part better than you do.

There are many circumstances in which a leader may advise with his subordinates, but it must be clear in the end that the final judgment is his own. It is possible, too, for the best men to make mistakes—these should always be frankly acknowledged as such, and no attempt made to bluff them through. Apologies and explanations why are but harmful. The men appreciate manliness; you cannot fool them long, and found out as a bluffer, your leadership is hopeless.

It is proper that you should aspire to popularity, to be beloved of your men, to be one of those leaders of whom it is boasted that their men would follow them anywhere. And remember that while history speaks of such leaders generally in the higher grades, their success was made possible only by the fact that their armies were made up of many small groups, in which the men were following their leaders with equal loyalty.

But do not be deluded into thinking that this popularity is attained by easygoing methods, by favoritism, by winking at delinquencies and overlooking failures in strict performance of duty. Such popularity fades when the real test comes, and changes to disrespect, insubordination, and contempt, when real men are at the fore, leading through hardships and dangers. Build then your popularity on the firmer qualities of justice and fairness to all, inflexibility in demanding obedience and faithful performance of duty, and constant vigilance for the welfare and interests of your men, and above all, by fore-thought and preparation, on such conduct of your office as will inspire respect and even admiration for your ability as a leader.

The popular noncommissioned officer is the one whose squad is the most snappy and efficient. His men admire him and they have the habit of jumping when he speaks. He does not waste their time through lack of fore-thought, nor make them do unnecessary work through lack of headwork. His brain is active, and in each case alert to such management as is easiest for his men. He does not uselessly march them around three sides of a square when a direct movement would have accomplished the purpose. He demands strict compliance with his orders, and close attention from all whenever he is giving general instructions; and sees that all work, hardship, or privilege is fairly apportioned among them.

It is psychologically true that every group of men, working together for a common purpose, soon comes to have a soul of its own. It is true of a company, it is true of a squad, and equally true of a gang of workmen on a job. The good leader learns to know that soul, and deal intelligently with it—knows its aspirations, its limits of endurance, how to inspire it to increased endeavor, how to inspirit it when discouraged in fatigue or hardship, how to arouse its interest in the work at hand. Let him always consider this in planning the work for his men, in controlling them in their work. There are many means of appeal to this spirit; you must learn and use them. You can make lagging footsteps quicken and fatigue-dulled minds brighten, just as martial music will make a jaded column spring to life; the men are no less tired, but new nerve-forces have supervened and made them forget the fatigue. This soul is as susceptible to bad influences as to good. How disastrous if the leader offends it. How important that he be in touch with it and treat it intelligently.

It is spirit that makes the soldier endure and dare. Especially among men of quality, spirit will carry through where cold-blooded training alone must fail. Watch the good troop leader; on the march, in camp, at drill, in the school room, by word and even more by thoughtful conduct of the work in hand, he is always fostering spirit. His men know that what he requires is reasonable, they feel that he is regarding their welfare in every move, making their work as interesting as possible, and conducive to future success. It is even possible to attain such a group spirit that the failure or delinquency of one man will so hurt the feelings of the group that his punishment may rest on that alone.

Every man delights in work well done, in actually doing well what he puts his hand to. The farmer boy takes pride in hoeing a row of corn expeditiously, the carpenter delights in his clever handiwork. Remember this when you direct the drill or work of your men. It must control your manner and tone when you criticize them. They enjoy being snappy, being efficient, doing the right thing at the right time, avoiding wasted time or energy—and they are disgusted with the reverse of these. Appreciation of this principle will cause a helpful chagrin when you see failure result from your own inability or inefficient leadership. You are applying it when you commend some man for particularly good performance, when you call out “Good!” as the men execute a movement properly at drill. The leader who truly appreciates this phase of human nature, and intelligently uses it in his work, has taken a long step toward success.

The state of discipline, a mental status, is attained more by a system of rewards than of punishment—yet both are necessary and potent factors. And do not imagine that there is a class to be controlled by punishments alone. For in our service there is no class of men in which you may not appeal successfully to the men’s better qualities. If such individuals arrive, the spirit of the group should force them into such uncomfortable isolation that they will either strive to emulate the good or else soon withdraw.

In the system of rewards the leader finds the most powerful ally in building up that discipline which leads to esprit and morale. He must be on the lookout for opportunities to use it. A word or even a look of approbation is often sufficient. In every group will be found natural leaders, men who, when hardships bear down the spirits of the majority, are found doing more than their share, and not only by example, but often by cheerful word or quip, are unconsciously inspiriting the wh...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• About the Editors and Contributors
• Foreword
• Preface
• PART ONE LEADERSHIP Perspectives and Context
• PART TWO CHARACTER The Heart of Leadership
• PART THREE GENERAL OFFICERS Leadership Challenges and Opportunities
• PART FOUR THE FUTURE OF MILITARY LEADERSHIP
• Credits and Acknowledgments
• Index