The Roman Occupation of Britain and its Legacy

Rupert Jackson

• Publisher: Bloomsbury Academic
• Year: 2020
• ISBN:
  9781350149403
• Edition: 1
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Roman Ancient History
• Index: History

This book tells the fascinating story of Roman Britain, beginning with the late pre-Roman Iron Age and ending with the province's independence from Roman rule in AD 409. Incorporating for the first time the most recent archaeological discoveries from Hadrian's Wall, London and other sites across the country, and richly illustrated throughout with photographs and maps, this reliable and up-to-date new account is essential reading for students, non-specialists and general readers alike. Writing in a clear, readable and lively style (with a satirical eye to strange features of past times), Rupert Jackson draws on current research and new findings to deepen our understanding of the role played by Britain in the Roman Empire, deftly integrating the ancient texts with new archaeological material. A key theme of the book is that Rome's annexation of Britain was an imprudent venture, motivated more by political prestige than economic gain, such that Britain became a 'trophy province' unable to pay its own way. However, the impact that Rome and its provinces had on this distant island was nevertheless profound: huge infrastructure projects transformed the countryside and means of travel, capital and principal cities emerged, and the Roman way of life was inseparably absorbed into local traditions. Many of those transformations continue to resonate to this day, as we encounter their traces in both physical remains and in civic life.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

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1.Introduction

2.A brief account of the Roman Empire

3.The Roman army

4.How do we know what happened?

(i)Contemporaneous historians

(ii)Official records

(iii)Archaeological evidence

1. INTRODUCTION

This book is an account of Britain under the Roman Empire. It is written for students and general readers.

The ancient texts tell the story from the perspective of the conquerors and colonizers. There is now a (long overdue) move to decolonize the curriculum. Much modern scholarship has focused on cultural questions in a post-colonial context. There is a vast mass of literature on indigenous motivations, experience and cognitive process in negotiations with empire.¹ This book is not, and could not be, a digest of all that material. Instead it provides a clear account of what the ancient texts say, integrated with the principal archaeological evidence. Any interested reader will require this before they delve into the broader literature.

2. A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

Roman Britain did not exist in isolation. It was part of an Empire that dominated Europe, the Near East and North Africa for several centuries. A basic understanding of that Empire and its institutions is essential. Many of those institutions were adapted and replicated in the provinces, including Britain. The institutions evolved over four hundred years, both in the mother city and across the Empire. But the interaction between the centres of imperial administration and the provinces continued. Any account of Britain between the first century BC and the fifth century AD that ignored what was happening on the Continent would be myopic.

Rome, a city on the River Tiber in central Italy, was traditionally founded in 753 BC. Initially a kingdom, it developed into a Republic² and gradually gained control of Italy, in due course making all Italians Roman citizens. In the third century BC Rome was engaged in a series of foreign wars, principally against Carthage in North Africa, from which it emerged victorious. During these wars Rome annexed overseas territories and put them under the control of governors. During the second century pressures of survival and military necessity gradually led Rome to expand its Empire.³ Thus by 100 BC Rome found itself as the dominant power in the region, controlling a ring of provinces around the Mediterranean coast. This arrangement was not viable in the long term, because hostile peoples were massed in the hinterlands behind each of these provinces. In the first century BC a series of Roman generals entrusted with super-commands and vying with one another won spectacular victories in those hinterlands.

The Empire came to embrace most of Europe, the Near East and North Africa. Rome secured this domination through the discipline of its armies, the brilliance of its generals and its intelligent provincial administration.⁴ Internal strife within the territories that Rome invaded also played a part. One of those generals, Julius Caesar, mounted the first recorded attack on Britain. After leaving Britain, he effectively became a dictator and dominated Rome until his assassination in 44 BC.

By the late first century BC the Empire and the Roman road system extended up to the north coast of Gaul (modern France and Belgium). Britain was still nominally independent and remained so for a few more years, but southern Britain had become part of the ‘Roman world’. Latin was appearing on coinage and cross-Channel trade was increasing with customs duties going to the Roman treasury.

After thirteen years of political compromise and civil war Caesar’s great nephew and heir, Octavian, emerged as sole ruler of the Roman Empire in 31 BC. As the first Roman Emperor, Octavian was given the title Augustus.⁵ The eighth month of the year was named after him. Ironically, August is now the month when most people go on holiday, but this frivolity was not foreseen at the time. Augustus described his status as princeps, meaning leader or first minister, since this term was less offensive than dictator, the word traditionally used for individuals who exercised supreme power as had Caesar. Augustus died in AD 14. Many emperors followed in his path. Some were good, some were bad. Some were sane, others were less so. Some emperors enjoyed long reigns, but many were quickly despatched, usually by poison or the dagger. In all there were 66 emperors between 30 BC and AD 284. This period is known as the ‘Principate’.

Climate change may have been a factor in these events.⁶ There was a warm period from about 200 BC to AD 150, known as the ‘RCO’ (Roman Climate Optimum). The RCO coincided with the high point of Roman imperial expansion. Favourable climate was possibly one of the reasons for the growth of the Empire. During the turbulent third century, the weather became a bit chillier. Some warming occurred in the north-western part of the Empire during the fourth century. That was the golden age of villa culture in Britain.

The ‘later Roman Empire’ or ‘late antiquity’ are terms used to describe the period⁷ starting in AD 284 when Diocletian became Emperor and introduced a new form of imperial rule, the ‘tetrarchy’. ‘Tetrarchy’ is a Greek word meaning rule by four people. Under this system power was shared between two senior emperors and two junior emperors. The two senior emperors each had the title ‘Augustus’ and the two junior emperors had the title ‘Caesar’. The tetrarchic system did not last long. Four men with large egos are hardly likely to share out power amicably. Nevertheless, the administrative reforms that Diocletian initiated and his successor, Constantine, carried through substantially re-shaped the Roman Empire.

Quite when the ‘later Roman Empire’ ended is a moot point. Italy was subject to successive invasions by barbarians⁸ in the fifth century. The last Emperor in Rome was deposed in AD 476. But by then the capital of the Empire had been moved to Constantinople (formerly called Byzantium, now Istanbul). The Eastern Empire centred on Constantinople continued for another thousand years until it fell to the Ottomans in 1453. For present purposes it is unnecessary to identify the end point of the later Roman Empire, since Britain dropped out of the Roman Empire when it was definitely still in existence, namely in AD 409.

After this brief historical summary, we must look at the main institutions of the Roman state. These institutions formed the backbone of the Empire and will often feature in the later chapters.

Under the Republic popular assemblies had limited law-making powers. They elected magistrates, who served in pairs for a year at a time and carried out the administration. These magistrates have a pre-eminent place in the history of the Roman Republic,⁹ although later they were subordinate to the emperors. They possessed a range of executive, legal, military and religious functions. These included maintaining the city, managing public finances, sometimes determining foreign policy, commanding armies and of course sitting as judges. Each magistrate held office for a year. The top magistrates were two consuls. Below them came praetors and then quaestors. The Romans established a similar hierarchy of magistrates in Britain.

The leading men of the state formed the Senate, which was in origin an advisory body. The Senate was the most senior and prestigious council under the Roman constitution. Having been established early in Rome’s history, its role evolved over time. The Senate acquired supervisory, executive and judicial functions. It remained in existence after the demise of the Republic, but with reduced powers. The Senate legitimized emperors by ratifying their appointment. Usually it had no option.

Once again, the institutions of Roman Britain mirrored those of the mother city. As areas attained self-government, they elected their own ‘senates’. If you go to the village church at Caerwent in Monmouthshire, in the porch you can see a third-century inscription¹⁰ recording decisions taken by the local senate.

The institutions of the Roman state were reflected in its social structure. Senators and their families formed the upper class. Below them came the equites or equestria...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half-Title Page
• Dedication
• Title Page
• Contents
• List of Illustrations
• Preface
• 1 Introduction and Background
• 2 Britain in the Iron Age
• 3 The First Invasions: Julius Caesar
• 4 The Invasion of Southern Britain: The Emperor Claudius
• 5 Britain in the Mid-First Century
• 6 Boudica’s Rebellion and Its Aftermath
• 7 The Flavian Period
• 8 Life on the Northern Frontier
• 9 The Romanization of Britain in the First Century
• 10 The Emperor Hadrian Visits Britain
• 11 Britain in the Second Century
• 12 The Emperor Severus Arrives and Stays
• 13 The Third Century
• 14 The Emperor Constantine Launches His Career in Britain
• 15 Turmoil in the Mid-Fourth Century
• 16 The Final Years of Roman Britain
• 17 Towns and Urban Life
• 18 Life in the Countryside
• 19 Religion in Roman Britain
• 20 The Romano-British Legacy
• Bibliography
• Index
• Copyright