Fundamentals of Educational Research

Garry Anderson, Nancy Arsenault

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2005
• ISBN:
  9781135708207
• Edition: 2
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

Fundamentals of Educational Research succeeds in cutting through the complexities of research to give the novice reader a sound basis to define, develop, and conduct study, while providing insights for even the accomplished reader.
This best-selling book is of value to all social researchers, but in particular to upper-level undergraduate and graduate students as well as researchers employed in private industry, management and government agencies. Anderson discusses the research process and offers a wealth of information on how to define a research problem, plan a study, develop a research framework, collect the data, analyse it and write it into a credible paper or thesis. He has captured the essential components of the research process in a book that balances the quantitative and qualitative perspectives through both the academic and consulting research traditions.

Part I
Introduction to Educational Research

Chapter 1

The Nature of Educational Research

How you see the world is largely a function of where you view it from, what you look at, what lens you use to help you see, what tools you use to clarify your image, what you reflect on and how you report your world to others. Thus, an empirical researcher will see only those things which are conveniently measured in empirical ways. A sociologist will only be concerned with patterns affecting groups and will have little chance of learning about individual motivations except as they relate to group behavior. The behaviorist will focus on reporting and controlling behaviors, whereas the anthropologist’s concern will be on the underlying meaning. Thus, research reflects the values, beliefs and perspectives of the researcher. This is not the same, however, as saying that research is subjective. For valid research, similar approaches should lead to similar conclusions, but different approaches can hardly be expected to lead to exactly the same conclusions. These different approaches cannot even be expected to ask the same questions, let alone realize similar answers. Thus, few researchers are truly unbiased or value-neutral, obviously carrying a baggage of beliefs, assumptions, inclinations and approaches to reality.

Beginning researchers should understand this interaction between the answers, questions and who is asking them. When reviewing previous research one should attempt to understand the researcher’s perspective on the world as well as the results and conclusions. In coming to grips with your own research you must clarify your own preferred way of viewing the world: What questions are important to you? What are your approaches to knowledge? What personal strengths do you have that can help you adopt a particular methodological approach? With what types of studies would you prefer to be associated?

Traditional Approaches to Knowledge

There are five main ways in which the human race approaches knowledge. The first is the method of tenacity where people hold to the truth merely because they believe it to be true. They have always known it to be true and so even contrary evidence is dismissed out of hand. This method is nothing more than blind stubbornness, but it is responsible for many prevalent beliefs, some true, others erroneous. It is not an approach to knowledge which need concern us as researchers.

Another fundamental way of knowing is based on authority. People rely on experts to gain understanding and guide their behavior. In any family or work setting the views of those endorsed as knowledgeable have credibility and are believed. On the broader scene, certain acknowledged experts are also believed. Thus, if Linus Pauling believes in vitamin C, that is good enough evidence for me. If the Bible says it is true; it must be so. The only utility of this approach to the researcher is that it sometimes poses questions which bear researching: Does vitamin C really cure colds?

The rationalist approach to knowledge adds thinking and deduction which, in some instances, can lead to useful generalizations or predictions. It is based on the notion of logic which links truths and enables us to predict situations which may not have been directly observed. If A causes B and B causes C, then A probably also causes C. This approach is under utilized in the educational research literature, but it is a vital one. The rationalist approach helps extend theory and sets up questions that can be addressed by the researcher. It is the fundamental approach of educational philosophers and is also used in evaluation studies and contract research.

A related method might be termed insightful observation. Insightful observation is used by intelligent people who are capable of gathering information from their experience then drawing useful generalizations and conclusions from these observations. Unlike the former method, this incorporates some observational basis, albeit unsystematic. Furthermore, it assumes values and contradictions that surround all aspects of our lifeworld. This approach is used by some researchers to formulate logical questions and suppositions for more systematic research and analysis. As a way of developing questions, it, too, can be useful to science as demonstrated by the recent research on folk remedies and natural medicines.

Finally, the scientific method incorporates observations and data which are systematically collected and analyzed in order to obtain understanding of phenomena based on controlled observation and analysis. It is this final form which represents research and the research method in its most widely understood meaning. Unlike the other methods, the scientific method builds in selfcorrection. New evidence is constantly brought to bear and existing generalizations are constantly modified and corrected to accommodate this additional evidence. However, it is also fair to say that most research and especially contract research and evaluation also incorporates some of the useful features of insightful observation and the rationalist approach. Philosophical inquiry does not typically involve systematic observation and relies entirely on a rationalistic approach. For this reason, some people would question whether philosophical inquiry should be called research.

Dominant Paradigms and Approaches to Research

This book focuses on two dominant research paradigms: the positivist paradigm and the post-positive paradigm. The dominant paradigm influencing educational research is what is popularly referred to as the scientific method. It stems from the branch of philosophy known as logical positivism. It asserts that things are only meaningful if they are observable and verifiable. The so-called scientific method formulates a hypothesis from theory and then collects data about the observable consequences of the hypothesis to test its validity in the real world. This method originated in the physical sciences and then was adopted by educational psychologists who dominated the field of educational research for most of this century. The approach is inherently quantitative, emphasizing measurement of behavior and prediction of future measurements. The underlying assumption is that mathematical models exist and need to be uncovered, and any limitations are a result of faulty measurement, imperfect models, or an inability to control the extraneous variables. However, there have been criticisms of the positivist paradigm. One is that observation is not value-free, as the positivists assert. Indeed, what one observes, not to mention how we observe it, implies a set of values in the observer. Furthermore, some of the most important things in human behavior are things that cannot be directly observed, such as intentions and feelings.

These criticisms led to a paradigm commonly referred to as post-positivism. This paradigm accepts values and perspective as important considerations in the search for knowledge. What you see is dependent on your perspective and what you are looking for. The post-positivists are inclined to working in naturalistic settings rather than under experimental conditions. The approach is holistic rather than controlling and it relies on the researcher rather than precise measurement instruments as the major means of gathering data. It emphasizes qualitative rather than quantitative measurement where the approach emerges according to opportunity, and those being studied are assumed to have something to say about the interpretation of data. It has many elements of insightful observation though in its best manifestations is grounded in theory. Both of the first two paradigms are what might be referred to as academic research, because they share the academic agenda of the advancement of knowledge that can be generalized to the world.

As well as these two dominant paradigms, educational research is affected by two differing approaches: the academic research approach and the contract research approach. Unlike academic research, contract research places value not on a detached or disinterested quest for truth, but on the need of the sponsor to know. The contract research approach is a utilitarian approach which assumes that useful knowledge is that which influences practice, and the contract researcher is able to serve a client who needs this knowledge to make informed decisions about educational practice, policy on programs. It includes such considerations as the cost of different courses of action and it is designed to examine past practice in an attempt to improve how things are done in the future.

Many beginning researchers confuse the two approaches, and consequently get into difficulty because they mix their perspectives. They embark on academic research that searches for ungrounded knowledge, but do so because they expect that it will influence someone such as their employer or someone they do not even know: ‘Once I diagnose the problems of education in Indonesia, the government will surely change its policies!’ If you wish to engage in academic research, do it for the personal pleasure it brings. If you wish to do contract research bear in mind that it can only be successful if the agenda is not yours. Exhibit 1.1 compares the academic and contract research traditions.

This chapter explores the nature of educational research, the four levels of research and introduces terms which refer to common methodological approaches. It then defines some basic concepts useful for further study of educational research.

Exhibit 1.1:
A comparison between academic research and contract research

What is Educational Research?

Research in education is a disciplined attempt to address questions or solve problems through the collection and analysis of primary data for the purpose of description, explanation, generalization and prediction.

Research is fundamentally a problem-solving activity which addresses a problem, tests an hypothesis or explains phenomena. I prefer the problem-solving formulation which relies on a series of specific questions addressed by data collected for the purpose. In this traditional research approach, hypotheses are derived, tested under various conditions, then accepted or rejected, generally in accordance with pre-established conventions. This approach is best suited for certain problems and methods rooted in experimental studies, but is of limited use for the more general problem-solving addressed here. The formulation of research problems and questions is a more general and generalizable approach to research and is the one followed in this text. Succeeding chapters are devoted to the task of formulating researchable problems, suitable research questions and deriving methodologies with which to explore them.

There is another domain of investigation which some scholars consider research. It includes philosophical analysis, especially conceptual analysis, the situation of educational issues within a philosophical tradition, the examination of epistemological and axiological assumptions, criticism and so forth. I view such activities as scholarly, but not as research in the sense in which it is used in this text. The principal difference is the lack of primary data in those approaches which rely entirely on critical thinking and analysis of existing literature and theory.

Exhibit 1.2 lists ten characteristics of educational research which extend the definition noted above. Unlike other forms of knowing, research relies on systematic and objective observation, recording and analysis. It seeks to answer the questions

EXHIBIT 1.2
: TEN CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

1. Educational research attempts to solve a problem.
2. Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using existing data for a new purpose.
3. Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
4. Research demands accurate observation and description.
5. Research generally employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis.
6. Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will help in understanding, prediction and/or control.
7. Research requires expertise—familiarity with the field; competence in methodology; technical skill in collecting and analyzing the data.
8. Research attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great pains to validate the procedures employed.
9. Research is a deliberate and unhurried activity which is directional but often refines the problem or questions as the research progresses.
10. Research is carefully recorded and reported to other persons interested in the problem.

and address the problems posed by inquiring minds and strives to find general principles and theories which can lead to the prediction of behaviors and events in the future. The goals of research have to do with understanding, prediction and ultimately control. These notions rely on controlled and accurate observation and the recording of information. Only in this way can prediction be accurately measured and assessed. It is important to understand that the researcher should be unbiased and not have too strong a vested interest in the outcome. It is natural for people to do research in areas towards which they feel a certain value commitment, but it must not interfere with one’s ability to preserve objectivity. People with a mission should engage in volunteer work or religion; they should not pursue research to justify their causes.

Research is a scientific process which assumes that events in the world are lawful and orderly and, furthermore, that the lawfulness is discoverable. This is the meaning of determinism and the researcher acts in the belief that the laws of nature can be understood and ultimately controlled to at least some degree. In a nutshell, educational research is the systematic process of discovering how and why people in educational settings behave as they do.

Our assumptions and perspectives underlying nature and research are fundamental to our understanding and progress. Very often shifts in assumptions have lead to important discoveries. The assumption that learning must be controlled by a teacher who feeds information to students has helped preserve the nature of schooling as we have known it. A shift in such an assumption leads to fundamental questions about the nature of schooling. Early research on teacher effectiveness focused on the teacher, but a shift to learning and study of the learner paid greater dividends in helping us understand the teaching-learning process.

Research takes many forms and it incorporates many tools, methods and techniques with which we attempt to understand the world around us. All research relates to questions or problems which present themselves and to which the researcher seeks answers and understanding. Why are school classrooms organized in seats and rows? Why is formal schooling arranged in different levels which take place in different buildings and incorporate slightly different methods? Why do some children learn easily and effectively while others have learning difficulties? Why do some school administrators attend inservice education while others do not? How do young children best acquire a second language? How can we help developing nations build educational institutions which respond to indigenous needs and reflect indigenous capabilities?

Levels of Research

There are essentially four levels at which educational research takes place: descriptive, explanatory, generalization and basic or theoretical (see Exhibit 1.3). Descriptive research has two major branches—historical and contemporary. Historical research attempts to describe what was, whereas contemporary research describes what is happening now. While descriptive research is the first and most elementary level of

Exhibit 1.3:
The four levels of educational research

research activity, it is of major importance for understanding and the accumulation of knowledge. A great many contemporary and past educational phenomena are not well understood because they have not been sufficiently described. A great many questions in education are descriptive. How were schools organized in colonial North America? On what activities do principals spend their time? What do teachers actually do in a classroom? What types of programs are offered by leading universities in adult education? What are the backgrounds of teachers of mathematics? What are the concerns of teachers, parents and students? What are the learning needs of beginning educational administrators? These and thousands of other questions are not necessarily well understood in the literature and for this reason descriptive research needs to take place if we are to gain understanding of the state of education in our world.

Fundamental to good description are good measurement and observation. Unless we can accurately describe our findings and observations objectively they will have little meaning for others and will be of no general use. Statistics can be used to quantify and simplify description by grouping observations and describing in a few words, symbols or numbers that would otherwise take a great deal of prose. In some cases, photographs, videos or films can be used to describe educational situations. Descriptions can also be enhanced and brought to life through the use of quotations, including stories and, as is the case in qualitative research, subjective interpretations by the researcher. Regardless of the approach— qualitative, quantitative or both—without good descriptions it is impossible to move to higher levels of research.

Explanatory research asks the question, what is causing this to happen? Why does one school get better results than another? How does a given principal motivate the staff while another is unsuccessful at doing so? Does a French immersion program lead to g...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Preface
• Part I Introduction to Educational Research
• Part II Types of Research
• Part III Data Collection
• Part IV Appendixes
• Glossary