Researching Education

Perspectives and Techniques

Kanka Mallick, Gajendra Verma

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2005
• ISBN:
  9781135716950
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

This book provides the reader with an introduction to the world of educational research. A two-pronged approach is adopted: to help the reader understand the concepts and terminology widely used in educational research and a range of methodological issues; and to provide the reader with guidance on initiating and implementing research studies. In this highly accessible book, the authors consider the perspectives, concepts and techniques in common usage in the field of research, and the variety of approaches that may be taken in researching different subjects. A glossary is also provided covering the relevant terms and concepts referred to and used in current educational research.

Chapter 1
Introduction to Research

The term ‘research’ is often defined in terms of ‘systematic inquiry’. Simply expressed, research involves finding out something which was previously not known, or shedding fresh light on an issue or problem. People often seem to regard research as something mystifying which is only conducted by professional researchers. In practice, we are all engaged in one form of research or another in our everyday lives without being necessarily conscious that we are doing it. Many attempts have been made to provide formal definitions of the activity of which the following are but a few.

The Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences (1934) defined research as being the:

…manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising and to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the construction of a theory or in the practice of an art. The mechanic or physician is a research worker only when he attempts to generalise about all automobiles or all patients in a given class. (pp. 330–4)

A rather broader meaning of research was proposed by Wise, Nordberg and Reitz (1967):

…it is characteristically and inevitably a systematic inquiry for verified knowledge. In that simple description is implied the whole syntax of research.

This description clearly suggests that the purpose of research is to gain new, or to verify existing knowledge.

The Penguin English Dictionary (1965) defined research as ‘scholarly investigation and study aiming at adding to the sum of knowledge of a specific branch.’

According to the Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary (1987), research means the ‘detailed study of a subject’. It further suggests: ‘when you do research you collect and analyse facts and information and try to gain new knowledge or new understanding.’

Kerlinger (1983) defined research as the ‘systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena’. Similar views were expressed by Best (1970) who suggested that ‘Research is a more systematic activity directed toward discovery and the development of an organised body of knowledge.’ These characteristics obviously apply in the main to the natural sciences, and not to the social sciences within which education falls. In social science research, it is difficult, though by no means impossible, to establish cause and effect relations (see, for example, Lawrence, 1973). The main differences in the nature of research between the natural sciences and the social sciences may lie in the conduct and methods of research rather than its rationale which is the acquisition of knowledge/ information.

Earlier views on the purpose of research focus on its use of systematic enquiry. This raises the question whether systematic enquiry is the main process of research, both in the natural and in the social sciences. For example, social research refers to both the collection and analysis of information on the social world, in order to understand and explain it better. Educational research refers to both the collection and analysis of information on the world of education (see Chapters 2 and 3 for further discussion). Classroom research refers to the kind of research that not only professional researchers but practising teachers are able to conduct within the context of their professional lives. This type of research attempts to utilize the insights and procedures of social and educational research in schools. The concept of research does not have the same meaning in all academic disciplines because of the diverse natures of activity. Thus, there is no universally accepted meaning of research. In one instance, research may appear to be a simple activity while, in another, an extremely complex one. It may take place in the laboratory, library, classroom or in the community. It may be local, national or international. Research may be conducted by a single researcher, or by a group of researchers. Whatever the research framework, the one thing common to all research activities is that they are supposed to be a thorough and systematic search for trustworthy and meaningful knowledge.

If the research is of an applied nature, its goal is to provide us with sound information for making decisions. There are, of course, theoretically oriented studies which may not have immediate practical application.

Cronbach and Suppes (1969), for example, have drawn a distinction between ‘decision-oriented’ studies and ‘conclusion-oriented’ studies. According to them, the goal of ‘decision-oriented’ research is to provide information for decision-makers, and ‘conclusion-oriented’ research follows the interests of the researcher. Thus, in decision-oriented research theory would be less important than conclusion-oriented research in which the goal may range from development of basic theory to applied and non-theoretical research, depending upon the interests of the researcher.

Whatever the orientation of their work, researchers should have the necessary skills and training to identify the precise research issues/problems, design a sound research framework, use appropriate techniques to collect information and present the findings clearly and concisely for relevant audiences to understand the message and, if appropriate, make decisions. The modern use of the term ‘research’ is broader than the traditional one, allowing it to be applied to the acquisition of any form of knowledge or information (Travers, 1978).

Opinions about the nature and purpose of research in most disciplines have changed over the last 40 years because of technological progress. Research as a human endeavour is often characterized by its persistent and organized effort to extend our knowledge and understanding about the world in which we live. The scope of research and its impact on our everyday life has now become wider than before because of the fact that we live in a global village. Whether research is conducted in a controlled situation or in a natural setting, its impact can be felt in seconds because of the faster communication system.

It is clear from the foregoing brief discussion that the quest for knowledge is an essential aspect of any form of research. Sometimes, information obtained from research may be inconclusive, unclear or apparently illogical, not helping us to reduce the areas of our ignorance. However, in the last 40 or 50 years, research has attained a great deal of respectability amongst educators, politicians, business people and others who often turn to researchers in the quest for reliable and valid information for making decisions. Today, every aspect of human life is affected by research technology. In fact, most advanced societies have evolved a research-oriented culture, or are in the process of moving in that direction.

What, then, are the characteristics of research? Some of its essential characteristics may be summarized as follows:

• Research is an organized and deliberate effort to collect new information or to utilize existing knowledge for a new purpose.
• Research seeks to answer worthwhile and fundamental questions, by utilizing valid and reliable techniques.
• Research is logical and objective, using the most appropriate test/s to justify the methods employed, data collected, and the conclusions drawn.
• The final outcome of research contributes to the gaining of new knowledge and a better appreciation of the issues involved.

Methods of Research

Considerable changes have occurred over the last few decades in the ways that researchers have sought to pursue plausible and objective explanations of problems or to address issues of concern. Those ways are properly referred to as methodology, that is, the particular methods or techniques employed in the conduct of the research. The selection of the most appropriate methods and techniques, whether in sampling, data collection or analysis, is part of the art of the researcher who must find the best way of tackling the topic under study and providing answers that are reliable and valid (Silverman, 1993). The tools and procedures for gathering and analysing data have also been refined in the last 30 years or so, not least because of technological progress in the field of computing. It also seems to be the case that research in the physical and biological sciences has developed faster than research in the social sciences because of the fact that external factors are less amenable to controlled scrutiny in the social sciences than in the natural sciences.

Research methods do not seem to be isolated; they overlap. Investigators need to reflect on their own understanding and thinking when using any systematic research method for obtaining reliable knowledge or for getting at what some writers describe as the ‘truth’. In the early 1930s, Dewey gave an impetus of major importance to the so-called scientific method. He described the five main stages of thought or conceptualization when researchers attempt to acquire new knowledge:

1. Recognition and definition of the problem;
2. Observations, collection and classification of data considered relevant to the problem;
3. Formulation of a tentative hypothesis concerning these observations or the phenomena;
4. Verification of this hypothesis against all the obtained facts. This might involve the collection of additional/new data and the modification of the original hypothesis;
5. Formulation of conclusion/conclusions in terms of general principles concerning the problem or the phenomena. (Dewey, 1933)

While the above stages are a useful general guide in the construction and implementation of research, the researchers do not always need to follow these steps in a rigid way. In a practical situation, their thinking frequently moves to and fro across these basic steps. The exact formulation of a research strategy varies according to the nature and purpose of the research. The method of acquiring knowledge needs to be more flexible than is often the case.

It is also true that what has been broadly called in the literature the ‘scientific method’ has proved valuable in the study of the natural sciences, and has also helped social scientists to gain insight into many problems/issues. This method provides result which are quantifiable. The researcher is able to say, for example, that a particular technique of teaching reading applied to a group of children resulted in their having a reading age 7 months in advance of a similar group who were taught by another method. The apparent precision of the results obtained in quantitative studies makes the approach very attractive. However, the quantitative is not the only knowledge of reality, and all things do not exist in quantities that lend themselves readily to measurement (see Chapter 5). There are other research techniques to explore reality, such as those used by Piaget (1926; 1932) in his investigations of the beginnings of a child’s concepts. Further, there are many qualities, behaviours and events that cannot yet be measured—because no instrument, tool or technique has been devised which can, by general consent, accurately and repeatedly be applied to measure them. An example of this might be beauty: no way of measuring this exists though the writer recollects listening to a radio game in which the members of the panel were asked to devise a new and useful unit of measurement. Denis Norden proposed the ‘millihelen’ which he defined as ‘the quantity of beauty required to launch one ship’.

The research methods in the social sciences in particular have become closely bound up with the values, attitudes and perceptions of the researcher. This is not the same as suggesting that research is subjective. Inevitably, no researcher can claim to be value-neutral, free from assumptions, unbiased and objective in viewing the world. Scientific knowledge exists within a particular framework of expectation; the work of Kuhn challenged the existing belief that science is a rational and objective enquiry (Kuhn, 1970, 1972). Another point to remember is that there are many questions, particularly in the social sciences, which cannot be answered by the controlled method of enquiry which is often described as the scientific method. The planning of a research programme may include a great deal of exploratory work which is often intuitive or speculative, and at times fragmented. Although the investigator has to define the problem/issue in a precise manner at some stage, concepts and ideas might initially be vague and ill-defined. It may be necessary to observe and study the situations and even collect some preliminary data in order to establish the relevance of vaguely conceived ideas. In this process, reading around the field of study, intuition, speculation, hunch or intelligent guess becomes necessary for the formulation of a clearly defined problem. It should also be emphasized that problem recognition is one of the most difficult as well as the crucial part of the research process. Thus, research should not be regarded as a rigid activity.

A clearly defined problem may generate one or several hypotheses or research questions. The hypothesis/research question must be stated clearly in order to test its logical or empirical consequences. The use of hypothesis or research question may prevent an investigation from becoming too broad in scope or disorderly in the construction of the research design. Writing about the need for carefully formulated hypotheses, Van Dalen (1966) stated that ‘No scientific undertaking can proceed effectively without well-conceived hypotheses…. Without hypotheses, research is unfocused, haphazard and accidental’ (p. 457). Hypotheses, according to Van Dalen, are important because they tell the researcher what should be done to get an answer, and how it should be done. Thus, the focusing of research towards testing specific hypotheses or seeking the answer to questions guides the researcher to arrive at valid conclusions.

Another reason for establishing carefully formulated hypotheses or research questions is that at some stage the investigator might need to examine relationships and trends between the variables. Kerlinger (1983) remarks, ‘The scientist cannot tell positive from negative evidence unless he uses hypotheses.’ Hypotheses/questions are at the core of research activity and should, consequently, not be based on wild speculation. Moreover, they should be framed in such a way that they are capable of standing up to the rigours of testing in the course of the research.

It should be noted that many hypotheses, particularly in behavioural research, cannot be tested directly because they may deal with abstractions. The investigator therefore must choose a sample of behaviour, thought or feeling that can be tested or observed directly either by the researcher or the research subject. The sample of observable behaviours and feelings and their correlates may then be evaluated in terms of their consistency or inconsistency with the formulated hypothesis. On the basis of obtained evidence, the researcher may deduce the logical consequences of the hypothesis. For example, a research worker might formulate a hypothesis that mixed ability teaching provides greater intellectual stimulation for less able children than if taught in a streamed class. Two classes can be carefully selected—one containing mixed ability pupils and the other with less able pupils. A test of scholastic achievement can be administered at the end of the school academic year to both the groups. If the hypothesis were true, less able children in the mixed ability group would show significantly higher achievement scores as compared with those less able children who were taught in a segregated class. Thus, the researcher draws the consequences of the hypothesis. Some research studies may require the f...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• List of Figures and Tables
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Chapter 1: Introduction to Research
• Chapter 2: Educational Research: Mapping the Domain
• Chapter 3: Educational Research: Nature and Process
• Chapter 4: Educational Research: A Short History
• Chapter 5: Approaches to Researching Education
• Chapter 6: Research Tools In Education
• Chapter 7: Educational Research Planning
• Chapter 8: Statistical Concepts and Educational Research
• Chapter 9: Educational Research and the Teacher
• Glossary of Educational Research Terms