The Routledge International Handbook of English, Language and Literacy Teaching

Dominic Wyse, Richard Andrews, James Hoffman, Dominic Wyse, Richard Andrews, James Hoffman

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2010
• ISBN:
  9781135183134
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

Edited by three authorities in the field, this Handbook presents contributions from experts across the world who report the cutting-edge of international research. It is ground-breaking in its holistic, evidence-informed account that aims to synthesize key messages for policy and practice in English, language and literacy teaching.

A comprehensive collection, the Handbook focuses on the three key areas of reading, writing, and language, and issues that cut across them. The international emphasis of all the chapters is extended by a final section that looks directly at different countries and continents.

The authors address many key issues including:

• why pupil motivation is so important
• the evidence for what works in teaching and learning
• the place of Information Technology in the twenty-first century
• the status of English and other languages
• globalisation and political control of education.

This definitive guide concludes by discussing the need for better policy cycles that genuinely build on research evidence and teachers' working knowledge in order to engage young people and transform their life chances.

A powerful account that will be of interest to students, researchers and academics involved with education.

1
Introduction

Dominic Wyse, Richard Andrews and James Hoffman

The learning and teaching of English, language and literacy are the main priorities for the education systems of many of the world’s nations. The role of language as fundamental to learning in all other areas; the high priority given to literacy teaching; the argument that nations’ economic futures are closely aligned with literacy skills; the emphasis on reading, and the renewed interest in the evidence base for educational policy and practice, are ideas that many nations are addressing. In order to benefit from the wealth of international research of relevance to the teaching of English there is a constant need for expert synthesis and interpretation so that teaching can be informed by these insights. For that reason the aim of this book is to review international research that is particularly relevant to the teaching of English, language and literacy and its enactment as policy.

What do we mean by the words ‘English’, ‘language’ and ‘literacy’, and how do we distinguish between them? How do we define learning and teaching and their relationship? ‘English’ is perhaps the easiest to define; it is also the loosest definition. We do not mean the English language (though when authors in the handbook refer to it, they make the reference clear) but it is inevitable that in a handbook published in the English language and referring to its use worldwide, this aspect of English is central to the hand-book’s conception. Rather, our principal focus is on English as taught as a curriculum subject in schools, largely where English is a first or first-choice language. ‘Language’ is used to mean the way that learners are taught, and the way they learn, about spoken and textual language. One important part of this is grammar and syntax but our emphasis is also on whole ‘texts’, or language events, including images, sounds, gestures and other semiotics that are part of the landscape of communication in the twenty-first century. Our definition of language, therefore, has a bearing on how we see ‘literacy’. A narrow definition of that term would see a focus merely on the technical capacity to read and write words, which we see as important; but we also emphasise that literacy (or literacies) is a socially embedded semantic system, in a co-evolutionary relationship with new technologies, and as part of a multimodal framework that considers writing, reading, talk and listening alongside other modes of communication. Our central concern in relation to teaching is pedagogy, and we have wanted in this handbook to address pedagogical matters in every chapter, so that the collection is useful to teachers as well as to researchers, policy-makers and theorists.

There seems to be an increasing number of handbooks relevant to the teaching of English, language and literacy (in fact, a number of the contributors to this book are themselves editors of fine handbooks). To take but one example, information technology has attracted a wealth of handbook publications (Reinking – this volume). To some there is a danger that this represents a saturation of the publishing market. However, an alternative understanding of this phenomenon is that it is another indication that education as a discipline is maturing, because there is now such an impressive array of scholarship that needs disseminating in the particular way that an international handbook is able to do. Our claim to the uniqueness of this handbook is: (a) that it attempts to address the teaching of English, language and literacy holistically in recognition that teachers, at any phase of education, have to combine understanding of talk, reading, writing, language, and pedagogy in order to be effective; and (b) that its goal to distil messages from research is specifically focused to provide recommendations for policy and practice.

The chapters of the book locate recent cutting-edge research within an appropriate theoretical context, drawing as necessary on historical perspectives. A range of theoretical orientations informs the chapters; but of particular interest to the editors is the growth of interdisciplinary analyses. This interdisciplinarity is evident not only at a substantive level but also methodologically. Many of the authors recognise the contribution that both positivist and naturalistic modes of enquiry can contribute to the important questions that relate to policy and practice.

In order to address satisfactorily the many research areas that are of relevance to the teaching of English, language and literacy, this volume focuses in the first three sections on the key areas of reading, writing and language. In recognition that there are also important areas that are not easily categorised within these modes of English, the fourth section of the book addresses issues that cut across reading, writing and language. In addition to the examples of policy and practice from nation states, and the explicit international focus that is a feature of the chapters, the fifth section of the book provides a context for teaching and learning from the perspectives of different countries and continents. This is inevitably partial, but we hope it is another way to reveal issues that may be of global relevance.

Reading, writing and language

A chapter on pupils’ motivation is first in this book for good reason. There is growing evidence to support many people’s belief that motivated learners are more likely to learn effectively. However, while pupil motivation has remained something widely acknowledged as important it is not routinely and systematically addressed as part of national policy. The evidence suggests that the teaching of reading can foster different kinds of motivation leading to superficial engagement and/or deep engagement (Paris and McNaughton). Superficial engagement can come for some pupils as a result of a focus on formal school outcomes, but there is a more desirable form of motivation which results in engaged readers who choose to read for personal satisfaction.

Any overall aim – teaching for motivation is arguably a very good one – for English teaching has to be considered pedagogically. Within a sociocultural understanding of pedagogy (Dombey) we would highlight contextualised learning and teaching as an important consideration. For example the centrality of meaning and communicative intent to the teaching and learning of English requires the teaching of appropriate comprehension skills within the goal of pupils taking part in tasks which require the production of a satisfying longitudinal outcome (Duffy, Miller, Howerton, and Williams). As part of this reconceptualisation of reading comprehension, and reading teaching in general, attention also needs to be given to the fact that text genres affect the processes of comprehension (Duke and Roberts), not just written composition.

The claim has frequently been made that the reading wars that feature extreme arguments about top-down versus bottom-up approaches to the teaching of reading were resolved as research evidence in relation to phonology accumulated. There is now an impressive and growing body of research showing the importance of phonological representation in relation to the learning and teaching of reading (Goswami). However, some have been too quick to translate this crudely to particular approaches to the teaching of reading; approaches which fail to reflect the evidence about context. If we consider contextualised learning and teaching at the level of words, we see that an excessive focus on phonology (this in itself is perhaps not building on the evidence that the syllable is the primary perceptive unit) can lead to neglect of morphology, an aspect of language that has a strong semantic component and one which requires consideration of the word and sentence context (Hiebert and Bravo).

We began by highlighting contextualisation in relation to learning and teaching, of which comprehension and phonological representations are two important parts. They are parts which, we would argue, have to be more coherently connected in the minds of researchers, teachers and policy-makers in order for further progress to be made in the teaching of English. The alternative is a continuation of the decontextualised teaching of reading that has historically characterised so many nations’ approaches. In many countries of the world this is evident in the use of textbooks, and in particular the pedagogical assumptions that underpin such textbooks. But even when the most imaginative texts for pupils are routinely used the pressures from policy-makers are such that some genres are privileged above others (Bearne and Styles; Beavis), and student initiated questions and hypotheses may not be encouraged to the extent that they might be ( Janssen, Braaksma, and Rijlaarsdam).

As with reading, interest, enjoyment and motivation are also central to the teaching of writing. An enduring debate for writing has concerned how the basic skills can be taught in a way that appropriately balances the emphases on composition and transcription while maintaining pupils’ motivation. The evidence suggests that one potentially powerful way to balance pupil motivation for writing with teaching of the necessary skills is through the use of the process approach to the teaching of writing, augmented by explicit teaching of skills and strategies (Graham). Contextualised teaching of writing requires understanding about the way in which not only are words and sentences the nuts and bolts of a meaning-making system, but also that grammatical choices represent relations between writing and the world that writers inhabit (Myhill a). The importance of contextualisation can be seen not only through the adoption of a process approach, and through grammatical choices, but also at the level of some aspects of writing that have received rather less attention from researchers. Medwell and Wray make clear the links between handwriting and composition, and Bourassa and Treiman show that children’s understanding of spelling features concurrent development of morphology, orthography and phonology.

One of the many factors that it is necessary to consider in relation to effective pedagogy is how children’s writing develops. Programmes of study that are built on linear stages of writing development are common at national and regional levels across the world. The link between these programmes and the research evidence is however less clear. In part, this is because we still have some way to go in our understanding of writing development. Christie proposes four developmental phases that account for pupils from age 6 to age 18, with the move to greater abstraction in writing a vital one. Developmental progression is also a focus for Beck, particularly the period from the latter years of secondary education into college/university education. However, whereas for Christie linguistic measurement is the theoretical heart for her view of development, Beck’s analysis is built on an interdisciplinary focus that combines cognitive and sociocultural accounts. Bradford and Wyse also adopt an interdisciplinary focus as a means to highlight the combination of cognition, genre, and children’s writing experiences at home as important areas in relation to young children’s writing, and caution about the need to recognise individual differences in children’s writing behaviour in the context of stage theories.

The idea of an evidence-informed teaching approach which motivates pupils and which locates carefully balanced explicit teaching within a holistic framework is a very attractive one. The evidence reviewed in this book suggests not only the potential of this idea in relation to writing and reading as separate modes but also, with the inclusion of language, its potential contribution to a theory of effective English teaching. A direction for further research might be to investigate whether a motivational approach, such as an emphasis on whole texts which engage pupils, that productively combines the systematic teaching of the alphabetic code and other word-level understanding (provided the necessary pedagogic flexibility for teachers and pupils was enabled), when synthesised with our understanding about writing, results in better outcomes for pupils.

Anger – sing, goddess, the anger of Achilles son of Peleus, that accursed anger, which brought the Greeks endless sufferings and sent the mighty souls of many warriors to Hades, leaving their bodies as carrion for the dogs and a feast for the birds; and Zeus’ purpose was fulfilled. It all began when Agamemnon lord of men and godlike Achilles quarrelled and parted.

The opening words to one of the first and foremost works of western literature, Homer’s Iliad. The supreme artistic achievement of Homer, someone we know very little about, has attracted a series of significant controversies that revolve around language and literacy; for example the arguments about the extent to which the Iliad was oral or written, at a time when the first examples of Greek alphabetic writing were emerging; or the suggestion that Homer himself was illiterate. Bomer shows the modern theoretical relevance of orality, beginning with its roots in the study of texts such as Homer’s, and concluding with its current importance in showing the way in which written text can contribute to linguistic awareness and conceptual thought. Bomer also provides an important link between the book’s sections on literacy and language in his exploration of the similarities and differences between (and status of) oral and written language.

The word ‘language’ in the title of this handbook is perhaps the most important word of all. It is of course through language that pupils learn about language, which in its broadest sense includes reading and writing. The plural of the word language is also significant because at the central core of English teaching is, and should be, understanding that multilingualism is the norm, not an addition (Brutt-Griffler). This has profound implications for the role of the teacher, which so far governments have, particularly in the West, been slow to fully recognise and embed in policy. This understanding affects not only the teaching of English, but all subjects of the curriculum, as language is the vehicle for all teaching.

While cognitive psychological perspectives of language continue to be influential, scholarship on the social context for language (Myhill [b]) provides an increasingly powerful case for the understanding of teaching of English, language and literacy. One part of this is the necessary attention to equity and social justice that critical literacy provides (Janks). Another part of the sociocultural context is classroom discourse, through which learning is mediated. As Hardman shows, the recitation script is an ubiquitous feature of classrooms across the world. His call is for the replacement of this with more dialogic forms of discourse that would enable pupils to be empowered and to more frequently be part of initiating ideas. Although the universality of classroom discourse is recognised, the reasons for this are perhaps worthy of further exploration. There is potential in comparing with other universal forms of discourse, such as childdirected speech by parents and carers, to understand the reasons for such ubiquity, but also to fully evaluate potential weaknesses and benefits of common forms of classroom discourse.

Understanding of the links between language and literacy, and the place of language in the English curriculum, has grown over the last 30 years or so. One promising element of this has been the growing use of drama as a means to enhance English teaching, which Franks shows is supported by research adopting a range of methodologies including quantitative work. However, there is still much work to be done in order to better understand these links and their implications for pedagogy (see Salvatore’s chapter on Shakespeare). It is regrettable that the richness of language as an area for learning and teaching is still too frequently unacceptably narrowed; for example its relegation to simply ‘speaking and listening’. There is also a need to more clearly understand the elements of language that need direct teaching, those that need facilitation and encouragement, and those that can more appropriately be seen as part of pedagogy, and therefore a part of teachers’ professional knowledge base rather than a subject to be taught.

English, language and literacy teaching

Many of the contributors to this handbook are concerned to see literacy and the teaching of English and language holistically. For example when defining the difficulties in learning literacy that some children have (Avramidis, Lawson and Norwich), or in conceptualising writing composition as design. Afflerbach, Cho, Kim and Summer remind us of the negative aspects of literacy assessment if the definition of literacy is a limited one. It seems to us that a critical literacy perspective is an essential framework for thinking about literacy education (Janks), not least when considering social equity. Mosely, Cary and Zoch argue that the provision of pre-service teachers with opportunities to experience unfamiliar contexts is necessary in order to enhance their understanding of culturally responsive pedagogy. However, the question of whether pre-service teachers’ beliefs can be changed in order to positively impact on the outcomes for pupils remains one that is under-researched (Roller; see also Mosely for evidence on teacher preparation). Social equity has been used as a means to justify political control of education, but as Moss points out in the context of her exploration of gender, this is not the same as the drive for achievement of uniform outcomes in national performance measures. Many countries of the world have centrally controlled educational policies that have a direct impact on pupils and teachers. These are often defended on the basis that they give an entitlement to all pupils; however, true entitlement can also come from greater flexibility and choice over curricula and pedagogy as teachers and pupils construct education that democratically addresses their interests and needs.

There can be little doubt that information technology continues to have a powerful impact on growing numbers of people world wide. The speed of change is such that it is very difficult to accumulate measured judgements about the implications. There are many who argue that developments in the digital world have profoundly changed the way that literacy is enacted – for example the idea that writing has been repositioned in the landscape of English, and consequently we face the need to better understand the means of composition that students bring to bear (Jewitt and Kress). This is reflected in teachers’ knowledge (or lack of it) about the differences between pupils’ multimodal experiences in their homes and in society generally which inform the ways that pupils respond to school curricula and pedagogy (Marsh). The interface between home/community on the one hand, and schools on the other, in terms of how multimodality is employed and understood, is one that is in need of continued research.

Reinking’s focus is on new technologies; his challenge is that the implications for education as a result of digital technology developments are over-theorized and under-researched. Burn also reveals a lack of research related to moving image work as part of literac...

Table of contents

• The Routledge International Handbook Series
• Contents
• Illustrations
• Contributors
• Acknowledgements
• 1 Introduction
• Part 1 Reading
• Part 2 Writing
• Part 3 Language
• Part 4 Teaching English, language and literacy
• Part 5 English, language and literacy teaching: countries as contexts
• Part 6 Conclusion
• Index