Handbook of Education, Training, and Supervision of School Psychologists in School and Community, Volume I

Foundations of Professional Practice

Enedina García-Vázquez, Tony D. Crespi, Cynthia Riccio, Enedina García-Vázquez, Tony D. Crespi, Cynthia Riccio

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2010
• ISBN:
  9781135895808
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Éducation
• Subtopic: Éducation et orientation

Published with the sponsorship of the Trainers of School Psychologists, this two volume handbook examines the essential tenets of the school psychology profession, critically reviews training and practice issues, and evaluates how the traditional and changing skills and issues translate into meeting the needs of children and the systems that serve them.

Volume I focuses on the professional issues and topics that form the core of the university curriculum for the school psychology specialist degree.It explores contemporary university training programs, the foundations of school education, and key areas of responsibility for school-based mental health professionals, and takes a look at the future of training for school psychologists.Specific issues such as the teaching of specialty skills and training for unique areas and special populations are also discussed.By way of raising questions and issues that ultimately play out in the field, it lays the groundwork for Volume II, which is dedicated to bridging the training and practice gap.

Part I

Contemporary School Psychology Training

The university

1 School Psychology as a Profession

Introduction and Overview

Cynthia A. Riccio, Enedina García-Vázquez, and Tony D. Crespi

Introduction

There is considerable and continuing concern with the quality of the educational system in the United States and the extent to which it is meeting the needs of the students (Rollin, Subtonik, Bassford, & Smulson, 2008). This is evident in the passage of recent legislation, including the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (http://www.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/107-110.pdf). At the same time, there is significant research to suggest that approximately 20% of children have or will have some type of disorder (Friedman, Katz-Leavy, Manderscheid, & Sondheimer, 1998) and would benefit from receiving psychological or other mental health services (Friedman, 2001). School psychological services have been in place for more than a century, dating back to 1886, when Lightner Witmer established the first psychological clinic, as well as a hospital-based school (Fagan, 2002; Fagan & Wise, 2007). Fagan (Chapter 2, this volume) provides a brief but detailed historical perspective on the profession. Children and adolescents spend a fair proportion of their waking time in school settings, second only to their home context. Consistently, there have been increased efforts to maximize parental involvement in the educational process (Carlson & Christenson, 2005; Ollendick, 2005; Pelco, Jacobson, Ries, & Melka, 2000). As such, school-based models for delivery of psychological services facilitate both student access to services and the potential for more generalized change within the contexts in which children and adolescents function, academically and socially (Riccio & Hughes, 2001). By providing a range of services—diagnostic, consultative, intervention, and prevention—in collaboration with educators, parents, and other professionals, it is possible to create safe, healthy, and supportive learning environments for all students that strengthen connections between home and school. School psychologists help children and youth succeed academically, socially, and emotionally by helping others to the best solution for each student and situation; they use different strategies to address student needs and to improve schoolwide and districtwide support systems. School psychologists work with students individually and in groups, directly and indirectly. They develop programs to train teachers and parents about effective teaching and learning strategies, techniques to manage behavior at home and in the classroom, working with students with disabilities or with special talents, addressing a range of problems, and preventing and managing crises (Barringer & Saenz, 2007; Riccio & Hughes, 2001). In many regards, other professionals often underestimate the broad roles and functions that school psychologists can fulfill (Gilman & Medway, 2007; Sheridan & Gutkin, 2000).

This volume, in a fundamental fashion, is intended to provide the reader with a critical overview of the profession and practice of school psychology in contemporary society. Assembling a team of acknowledged leaders in the field of school psychology, the reader will be exposed to critical concepts involved in educating and training future school psychologists. Developed under the auspices of Trainers of School Psychologists, a professional association of university training programs and university faculty, these two volumes address critical concepts in training and professional practice.

Literature Review

Roles of School Psychologists

The roles of school psychologists are shaped in part by legislation, in part by the contexts in which the psychologists work, and in part by the training and experience of the individual school psychologist (Fagan, 2002; Gilman & Medway, 2007). Services provided by school psychologists include consultation, evaluation, intervention, prevention, research, and advocacy (Curtis et al., 2008). Traditionally, school psychology has been associated with evaluation and determination of eligibility for special services. In conjunction with the special education process, evaluation roles include the assessment of academic skills and aptitude for learning, as well as assessment of social-emotional development and mental health status for the individual. From an ecological perspective (Sheridan & Gutkin, 2000), the assessment role is not restricted to evaluation of the individual but includes examination of learning environments (i.e., the academic ecology and the school climate) and psychosocial variables that may have an impact on child adjustment.

Linked to assessment are the design and development of interventions. School psychologists also have a direct role in the provision of psychological counseling to help resolve interpersonal or family problems that interfere with school performance. This counseling may include direct training in social skills and anger management. School psychologists work directly with children and their families to help resolve problems in adjustment and learning; they help families and schools manage crises such as death, illness, or community trauma. One way that school psychologists do this is through their role as consultants.

As part of consultation, school psychologists collaborate with teachers, parents, and administrators to find effective solutions to learning and behavior problems. In this manner, they are able to improve the quality of services for all children by increasing the skills and knowledge base of those who work directly with children and families. They work to help others understand child development and how it affects learning and behavior, and they strengthen working relationships among teachers, parents, and service providers in the community. One way they strengthen these relationships is by developing partnerships of parents, teachers, and other professionals to promote positive child outcomes.

More recently, a focus for school psychologists has been that of fostering prevention activities and systemic change (D. N. Miller, George, & Fogt, 2005). These activities may include the design of various programs for children at risk of failing at school or who are at risk for adjustment problems. Programs may include those that promote tolerance, understanding, and appreciation of diversity within the school community and make schools safer and more effective learning environments. With the emphasis on prevention, consultation practices and involvement in policy development have taken on greater importance. School psychologists are in a position to work with school staff, administrators, and community agencies to provide services and programs directed at improving psychological and physical health for all children. Most importantly, school psychologists can facilitate the translation of research to practice (D. N. Miller et al., 2005).

The last role of the school psychologist is that of research and planning. The ability to provide all the other services is nested in advancing the knowledge base and establishing evidenced based practices for evaluation, intervention, prevention, and consultation. In order to ensure best practice, it is important for there to be ongoing and planned evaluation of the effectiveness of academic and behavior management programs. Psychology as a field can significantly contribute to fostering progress and addressing problems in educational and behavioral growth of children and youth; school psychology is uniquely suited to applying what is known from psychology to the educational context (Rosenfield, 2008).

Training for Professional Roles

School psychologists are highly trained in both psychology and education. Practitioners must complete a planned program that covers data-based decision making, consultation and collaboration, effective instruction, child development, student diversity and development, school organization, prevention, intervention, mental health, learning styles, behavior, research, and program evaluation. Minimally, this includes the equivalent of 3 years of full-time graduate study (beyond a bachelor’s degree), a minimum of 60 graduate credits of coursework, and traditional coursework, as well as a practicum and year-long full-time internship. Training is rigorous, includes various professional examinations, and concludes with programs endorsing graduates for state Department of Education credentialing for practice.

This said, there are multiple models and levels of training within the field of school psychology (D. C. Miller, 2008); D. C. Miller, DeOrnellas, and Maricle (Chapter 4, this volume) and Givner (Chapter 5, this volume) describe some of the models and degrees offered. In general, school psychologists must be certified and/or licensed by the state in which they work; this may or may not be comparable to the certification available through the National School Psychology Certification Board. In some states, the entry level for certification or licensure is a minimum of a graduate degree program (approximately 65 graduate semester credits) that includes a 1,200-hour internship; this is most frequently referred to as a specialist or specialist in education (EdS) degree. Entry level for licensure as a psychologist in most states is restricted to those who obtain doctoral training (see Crespi, Chapter 13, Volume II).

Depending on their level of training and applicable laws governing certification and licensure, individuals trained in school psychology work in a variety of settings (Curtis et al., 2008). The majority of school psychologists, who are certified by departments of education, work in school settings; in fact, most individuals who complete a specialist or similar level program are often limited by law to the school setting. Individuals who obtain doctoral training in school psychology, however, can practice in a variety of settings, including public and private school systems, school-based health centers, clinics and hospitals, community and state agencies and other institutions, private practice, and colleges and universities. Despite the existence of these options, less than 15% of individuals trained in school psychology reported having a primary work setting other than a school setting (Curtis et al., 2008).

One component of training that has taken on increased importance in the last decade is related to evidence-based practice (Kratochwill, 2007). Research suggests that most training programs in school psychology are not adequately addressing evidence-based practices (Shernoff, Kratochwill, & Stoiber, 2003); one of the greatest challenges is in determining what constitutes an evidence-based practice for a given population or target behavior (Kratochwill, 2007). In order to continue to develop, establish, and demonstrate the evidence base, whether for assessment or intervention, students need a basic understanding of research methodologies. These methodologies cannot be limited to the use of randomized control groups but need to include understanding of how to conduct program evaluation, establish treatment integrity, and effectively conduct single-case or small n research. Kratochwill (2007) suggested four differing conceptual frameworks to improve the knowledge basis and practice—these included efficacy studies, transportability studies, dissemination studies, and system evaluation studies. Unfortunately, the extent to which research coursework is required and integrated into training and practice, even at the doctoral level, varies by training program (Rossen & Oakland, 2008).

Pedagogical/Supervisory Issues

With more than 200 training programs throughout the United States and with a mix of part-time and full-time programs, as well as both doctoral and specialist programs, potential applicants have an array of options to examine when looking at training. Full-time or part-time? Traditional programs or distance learning models? Specialist or doctoral levels? Practitioner or research focused? For applicants, the field of options is wide. In addition, program faculty members have diverse applied and research interests, and programs also vary in focus, as well as in degrees conferred.

At present, approximately two-thirds of all programs are housed with schools of education, with the remaining housed with departments of psychology. Such differences can also relate to theoretical and programmatic focus, as well as degrees offered. Full-time programs at the specialist level can typically be completed in 3 years of full-time study and will include a mix of classes, practica, and a year-long internship. Full-time programs allow an interrupted sequence of coursework with minimal outside distractions but are not always feasible for applicants. At the doctoral level, students often find part-time options. Whether pursuing the PhD (doctor of philosophy), EdD (doctor of education), or PsyD (doctor of psychology) degree, the process may be drawn out over many years as personal, family, and professional responsibilities may delay timely degree completion. Ultimately, each applicant must personally choose whether a part-time or full-time option is best.

While school psychology programs historically occurred through traditional class delivery models, innovations in technology have increased the range of distance and integrated learning models. Whether distance learning models, online models, or “external” degree programs can best accommodate the acquisition of assessment and counseling skills remains unresolved. It is clear, though, that a growing shortage of school psychologists exists, it is clear that innovations in educational delivery systems have enhanced innovative graduate program degree offerings, and it is clear that many potential school psychologists are interested in alternative learning models. At present, for example, looking at clinical psychology, one sole distance learning program at Fielding Graduate University holds American Psychological Association (APA) accreditation and awards the PhD degree. In school psychology, National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) and APA approvals are likely to be explored by a growing number of such programs.

Supervision

One hallmark of training as a school psychologist involves clinical supervision, typically through a cadre of practicing school psychologists who supervise practica and internship training components. In addition, many programs also complement this supervision with group, university-based supervision. Individual, face-to-face clinical supervision offers the ability to specifically focus on students’ weaknesses; address assessment, counseling, and consultation issues; and specifically focus on strengthening the areas of weakness. Individual supervision is a hallmark of training in professional psychology.

Group supervision nicely complements individual supervision and offers a number of benefits, including vicarious learning of all participating; in effect, each student gets to experience at...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Half Title page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Volume II Contents
• Editors
• Contributors
• Introduction
• Part I Contemporary School Psychology Training The university
• Part II Foundations of Training
• Part III Training for Assessment and Evidence-Based Practice
• Part IV Training for Intervention Systems, settings, and special populations
• Part V School Psychology Training: Rooted in the Past, Practicing in the Present, and Contemplating the Future Summary and conclusions
• Index