Psychology for the Classroom: Constructivism and Social Learning

Alan Pritchard, John Woollard

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2013
• ISBN:
  9781136995712
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

Psychology for the Classroom: Constructivism and Social Learning provides a lively introduction to the much debated topics of talk and group collaboration in classrooms, and the development of interactive approaches to teaching. The authors provide a background to research in constructivist and social learning theory, offering a broad and practical analysis which focuses on contemporary issues and strategies, including the use of e-learning and multimedia. Throughout the book theory is linked with its practical implications for everyday teaching and learning and chapters incorporate:

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• the history of constructivist and social learning theory and key thinkers

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• pedagogical implications

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• practical strategies for the classroom

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• constructivist theory and e-learning.

Case studies and vignettes demonstrating best practice are used throughout the text, illustrating how monitored collaboration between learners can result in an effective learning environment where targets are met. Essential reading for practising teachers and students, this book is a valuable guide for those looking to provide effective teaching and learning within a constructivist framework.

1
Introduction

By the end of this chapter you will be able to:

contextualise the constructivist movement and understand its place in the scheme of psychological theory related to learning. And you will have:

considered the beginnings of constructivist learning theory;

been given an overview of the social constructivist approach to theory;

been given and considered an introduction to social constructivist ideas and to some of its proponents;

been given an overview of related social learning theories developed by such people as Bandura, and Lave and Wenger.

The aim of this book is to introduce the background and theory of social constructivism and social learning theory, to show how the theory might be translated into a set of pedagogical approaches to the teaching curriculum and to show how the pedagogy might be developed into practical strategies and activities for teachers to consider and deploy in their teaching.

In order to meet the first of these aims, it is important, possibly for social constructivist reasons (which will become clearer as the book develops), to situate social constructivism in the wider context of constructivist learning theory and also in the even wider context of constructivist thought and philosophy, which extends beyond learning into other areas of social, ethical and psychological thought.

An introduction to the constructivist movement

Mahoney (2005) tells us that the terms “constructivism”, “constructivist” and other related words and phrases have only recently become a part of the psychological lexicon. By “recently” he means from the beginning of the second half of the twentieth century. However, he traces the underlying ideas, though largely embryonic in nature, back a good deal further. There is a history of two thousand years attached to constructivist thought in the Eastern tradition and a history of at least three hundred years in Western thought.

Walsh (1999) cites the writing of Gautama Buddha (560–477 BC): “We are what we think. All that we are arises within our thoughts. With our thoughts we make the world” (45). This is indeed the view that individuals construct the world in which they live.That is, we come to understand our surroundings through processes of thinking based upon what is observed or otherwise experienced. More of this will come later.

Heraclitus (c.535–474 BC), a pre-Socratic philosopher, has also been shown to be a very early constructivist-style thinker. Most famously, Heraclitus is known for saying that we cannot step into the same river twice. Kirk (1986) suggests that Heraclitus drew distinction between “an ‘inner’ state of beliefs and an ‘outer’ state of facts, accessible to anyone” (62). This seems to be saying that the facts of the outer world are interpreted by the individual to form the beliefs of the individual’s version of reality.This is, as we will see, a constructivist view on reality and the individual.

The founder of Taoism, Lao Tzu, a contemporary of Gautama Buddha, more or less, also made statements to the effect that reality is a changing and variable entity which can be perceived differently by different individuals.

In the Western context, Giambattista Vico (1668–1774) wrote about human “knowing” involving an “imaginary construction of order in experience” (Mahoney, 2005: 747). Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), who is sometimes considered to be the first to have put forward constructivist ideas, described the mind as “an active organ which transforms the chaos of experience into orderly thought” (ibid.). It is worth pausing here briefly, as the history of constructivism is considered, since Kant is thought to have influenced Jean Piaget, a more well-known twentieth-century psychologist. Piaget is best known for the development of his theory of genetic epistemology, which we will consider later. Piaget’s thoughts on constructivist learning seem to have been based on some of the ideas first promulgated by Kant.This is not the place to delve into the detail of Kant’s work, except to say that his three “Critiques” (1781, 1788 and 1790) contain many ideas which were later nurtured and have grown, along with the thoughts of more recent constructivist thinkers, into a part of the wider constructivist school of thought.

Vaihinger (1852–1933) elaborated on some of Kant’s ideas. In his philosophy “As If ”, published in 1911, Vaihinger argued that the purpose of the mind and of mental processes is not to reflect reality, but to assist individuals on their journeys through the multifarious circumstances of life. This implies that mental effort is directed towards making sense of what is experienced on the journey of life and constructing an understanding of the many varied experiences encountered on the way.

George Kelly (1963), writing of his radical rethinking of the ways that we construct our understanding of our experiences, was influenced by Vaihinger’s work. Kelly suggests that we live in two fundamental worlds.The first world exists outside of any human understanding; the second is the world based upon the ways in which we interpret the primary world, which is an individual enterprise, in the form of representations or constructs. Kelly’s work has been claimed as an intellectual source and inspiration by more writers in what are sometimes seen as mutually exclusive schools of thought than any other writer. He claims surprise at the fact that his work is even considered as a part of the wider cognitive canon.

Constructivism, considered in its widest sense, is concerned with more than a theory of learning. First, and perhaps most importantly within the context of this book, is the notion of constructivist epistemology. Epistemology is a consideration and detailed study of knowledge. Epistemologists seek to investigate and understand the origin, nature, methods and limits of human knowledge. Constructivist epistemology is a philosophical approach to investigating the scope, structure and very nature of knowledge which follows a constructivist approach. Constructivist epistemology is a philosophical perspective taken by some philosophers towards the nature of scientific knowledge. Constructivist epistemologists consider that scientific knowledge is constructed by scientists and not discovered from the world. This rather complex idea will become clearer as this book unfolds and the nature of constructivist learning is explored.

Constructivism is also a major area for concern in international relations, in mathematics (especially in the field of constructing mathematical proof) and in art and architecture (a strong constructivist movement developed in Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century). The proponents of constructivism in art rejected the idea of what was known as “art for art’s sake”. In its place, they worked towards art being an enterprise directed towards social purposes and social change. Constructivism in art and architecture lasted only into the 1930s, but it seems to have had a noticeable effect on developments in art in the developing new order in Germany and elsewhere at that time. There is a branch of psychology which is not concerned with learning, which is also a part of the wider constructivist movement. Constructivism in this context is concerned with an approach to psychological research and therapy. There is also a constructivist branch of linguistics in which the acquisition of language is studied from a constructivist perspective.

However, for our purposes, constructivism as a theory of learning and social constructivism as a development and subset of constructivist learning theory which considers and develops a theory about the social nature of learning are the crucial areas for investigation.

The beginnings of constructivist learning theory

We have seen that the notion of constructivist theory might actually date back to Greek times with Heraclitus seen as the earliest Western contributor. It is possible to look to Buddha and Lao Tzu for even earlier, partial references to the ideas encompassed by the philosophy. However, for our purposes, and in more focused consideration of learning in particular, we can place the real development of constructivist learning theory in the twentieth century.

Early twentieth-century attempts at regularising an approach to understanding how learning takes place were centred on what have become known as behaviourist or, sometimes, stimulus–response theories. The notable scientists who developed this school of learning theory are: Pavlov (1849–1936) for the development of classical conditioning at the beginning of the twentieth century; Watson (1878–1958) for setting out the initial principles of behaviourism; and Skinner (1904–1990) for his pioneering work on the importance of reinforcement. Behaviourism has been largely set aside as theory of learning with importance for schools and other formal contexts. However, in many training situations for specific functions where an automatic response might be needed, a behaviourist regime can be an effective approach. There are also a small number of occasions in a school setting when an automatic response, which can often take place with little or no understanding, is acceptable. An example of this might be in the realm of safety in a PE lesson. When a teacher asks, in a regularised way, for everyone to stop what they are doing, it might be very important that this happens immediately and without question. A signal such as a blast on a whistle might be introduced to the class trained to respond appropriately. In a more academic way, the response to a simple multiplication might be needed on a regular basis in order for a child to make progress with some other aspect of their learning in maths. Some teachers encourage the ability to make rapid responses to quick-fire multiplication questions with this in mind. Teachers recognise that the answers may well be returned in an automatic way and that the child can make the correct response.The teacher will also recognise that a full and detailed understanding of the notion of multiplication and the multiplication fact in question may not be present. Teachers strive for pupils attaining understanding, but as an introductory stage this behaviouristic response will satisfy the teacher and, in a perfect world, will precede more work which will encourage understanding. Despite this being an interesting area to consider, this book is not the place to dwell on this aspect of learning.

Within the realm of learning theory, the constructivist movement probably has the most understandable title. As the name suggests, the theory draws a picture of knowledge and understanding being slowly constructed. The building metaphor continues, as we will see, with the use of other terms, such as “scaffolding”, which are used to illustrate the nature of the progress of learning and the support systems which may enhance the process. However, it is more than a general building of knowledge and understanding that is put forward; the constructivist model of learning suggests that constructive learning is an individual matter. Each of us will build an idiosyncratic version of reality based partly on identical experiences but shaped by individual experience and, importantly, upon an individual’s prior knowledge, understanding and experience. That means that two learners exposed to exactly the same learning experience (e.g. a planned lesson) are likely to have different learning outcomes as a result of, amongst other things, what they already knew about the subject and how they interpret the items of knowledge presented to them and how they undertake the activities during the lesson.We will come back to this concept in more detail in later chapters.

As we have seen, the constructivist movement is a wider vision of life and society. It is much more than a vehicle for describing the processes involved in learning. The beginning of the constructivist approach to learning is considered to be the work of Jean Piaget (1896–1980). Piaget, who worked in the mid- and late twentieth century, was not a social constructivist. However, his work led to the expansion of understanding of child development and learning as a process of construction that has underpinned much of the theory relating to social constructivism.This may seem slightly at odds with the dates of one of the most important early social constructivists since Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934), working in a secretive Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century, in some cases predates Piaget.They worked in parallel with similar but occasionally diverging ideas. In 1962 Piaget wrote of his failure to have met Vygotsky:

It is not without sadness that an author discovers, twenty-five years after its publication, the work of a colleague who has died in the meantime, when that work contains so many points of immediate intere...

Table of contents

• Psychology for the Classroom Series
• Contents
• Figures
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• 1 Introduction
• 2 Research
• 3 Theory
• 4 Pedagogy
• 5 Strategies
• References
• Index