Issues in Physical Education

Susan Capel, Susan Piotrowski

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2013
• ISBN:
  9781134662937
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

Issues in Physical Education stimulates student-teachers, NQTs and practising physical education teachers to reflect on issues important to improving teaching in physical education. It encourages reflection and debate as an important part of professional development. Issues discussed include:

• aims as an issue in physical education
• breadth, balance and assessment in the physical education curriculum
• equality and the inclusion of pupils with special needs in physical education
• progression and continuity in physical education between primary and secondary schools
• community initiatives in physical education
• physical education, health and life-long participation in physical activity.

Part I Introduction Aims of physical education

Aims as an issue in physical education

Margaret Whitehead

DOI: 10.4324/9780203135716-1

It is perhaps surprising that there should be need for a chapter in this book about the aims of a subject that has been a recognised part of education for almost a century. It is doubtful if there would be call for such a chapter in a book about mathematics or history, for instance. There are perhaps two reasons why the physical education profession needs to confront this issue; one relates to an advantage the subject has in the curriculum and the other to a problem inherent in physical education. To the advantage of the subject there are numerous very worthwhile outcomes of pupils being involved in physical education, for example health benefits, initiation into aspects of the culture of the society and learning to work in groups. (See Capel and Whitehead 1997 for further discussion of a range of outcomes of physical education.) Where there are a number of possible valuable outcomes it is inevitable that there will be debate about where the priority should lie. Working against the subject is the view that physical education is recreation rather than education and therefore does not deserve a place in the school curriculum. From this viewpoint it is held that pupils have plenty of opportunities for recreation at breaktimes and after school; curriculum time should be used for serious study. Faced with this challenge it is not surprising that the profession has to be both clear about the value of the subject and able to articulate this persuasively.

This chapter begins by addressing what is meant by the terms ‘aims’ and ‘objectives’. It continues by discussing reasons why teachers need aims and objectives. The third part of the chapter aims to clarify some differences between physical education, sport and recreation in order to put the following section about aims in physical education into context. This section looks at intrinsic and extrinsic aims of the subject and interrogates some examples of extrinsic aims, before considering two approaches to presenting physical education in the context of its being intrinsically valuable. The chapter then considers the implications of aims in physical education. This last section looks first at the relationship between aims and planning within the physical education curriculum before considering aims of physical education within the school context.

Aims and objectives

While there is some debate about how these terms are used, there is general agreement that they both refer to intentions underpinning a practice. In this chapter aims and objectives are referred to as planned outcomes that can be articulated and justified. One role for aims and objectives is that they answer the question ‘Why?’ in relation to a practice. The term ‘aim’ is used in this chapter to refer to intentions that are generally longer term. Characteristically there are aims for physical education, aims for a physical education department and aims for a scheme or unit of work. The identification of an aim would, for example, answer the question ‘Why have you included trampolining in your Year 8 scheme of work?’ The term ‘objective’ is used in this chapter to refer to an intention that is short term, such as the intended outcome of a single lesson or a specific practice in a lesson. The identification of an objective would, therefore, answer the question ‘Why are you using a 3 v 2 approach in this football lesson?’ Objectives are the building blocks to achieve aims. If the aim is to initiate pupils into a particular game form, they will need to master a whole range of skills, tactical procedures and rules. These specific needs become objectives. Aims, being broader intentions, have to be broken down into smaller steps so that lessons can be planned to work towards a longer term outcome.

The need for clearly specified intentions

Formal education is a social institution designed to be of benefit to a society, especially to the young people of that society. It is a hugely expensive enterprise, usually funded by the government of a country. A government often specifies what purpose education in its society should serve, thus defining the aims that education should achieve. Teachers are expected to work towards this overall purpose and for their part design curricula and lessons to enable this ultimate aim of education to be achieved. This is a fundamental reason why schools, departments and teachers must have clearly specified intentions. However there are also other reasons for teachers needing aims and objectives that relate more closely to actual work with pupils.

First, teachers need aims and objectives because these provide direction for their work. If teachers know what outcomes they want to achieve (where they want to be), they can plan how to get there (what content to use, which methods to employ). Teaching is a planned enterprise designed to achieve a specific outcome. Teaching must have a rationale, a basis from which planning takes place. Having a clear intention therefore is not an option but an essential first step to planning work with pupils. Teaching without a clear intention will result in random activity without coherence or progression.

Second, aims and objectives provide benchmarks to assess success. If teachers know where they want to be, they can judge if they have arrived or how far they have reached. If teachers know what they want to achieve they can identify what they need to assess to judge if they have been successful.

A third reason for having aims and objectives is that they serve to answer the question ‘Why?’ In other words they justify what the teacher is doing. However, because we are discussing teaching in an educational context, just having an aim or an objective is not enough. The intention has to be worthwhile and supported as such. So, for example, if a teacher were to say in a swimming lesson that his objective was to allow a group of pupils to ‘let off steam’, or to say in a football lesson that his purpose was to ‘keep a class quiet’ by playing a full game, it is doubtful if either would be seen as an acceptable educational intention. Aims and objectives advanced by teachers for their work have to be seen as valuable. In fact any stated intention always begs the question ‘Why is that valuable?’ Because there are those in education who are sceptical about the role of physical education in schools, teachers of this subject have to be able to answer both why questions. ‘Why are you doing this activity?’ and ‘Why is that a worthwhile use of pupils’ time in the curriculum?’

Physical education, sport and recreation

In considering the aims and objectives of physical education it is useful to be able to differentiate between this area of the school curriculum and the related practices of sport and recreation. It has to be said that this issue has generated a good deal of literature and could warrant a chapter of its own. Physical education and sport are considered in greater depth in Chapter 8 of this book. All that is proposed here is a working definition to make clear the area of activity which is the focus of this chapter.

Physical education is usually delivered as part of the school timetable and, in England and Wales, is guided by the requirements of the National Curriculum for Physical Education (NCPE). It is normally delivered by personnel in the employ of the school/local education authority (LEA). The NCPE is compulsory in Key Stage (KS) 1 to KS4. Beyond this statutory requirement, schools may make physical education compulsory or offer it as an option within the curriculum. Pupils’ ability and progress in physical education are assessed and these judgements are included in reports to parents. Taking part in physical education incurs no additional expenditure in state schools. Some private schools require pupils to provide their own equipment. Characteristically, physical education is child-centred and seen to have value in its own right as well as broad educational benefits.

Extra-curricular (i.e. outside the normal timetable) activities are generally delivered to pupils on school premises, normally by personnel in the employ of the school/LEA. These activities are often seen as part of physical education. Normally, no fee is paid by the participants. They are again child-centred. Pupil progress is monitored and performance may be commented on in reports to parents. The term extra-curricular may also be extended to outdoor adventure trips and other residential excursions organised by the school and run by school staff or other qualified personnel. These may involve such activities as climbing, skiing, camping and sailing and may take place at some distance from the school. Participation in off-site activities usually incurs a cost to pupils involved. Spectators are not involved in curricular work but may be present in some forms of extra-curricular activities.

There is a range of useful definitions of physical education. For example, the Physical Education Association of the United Kingdom (PEAUK) defined physical education as ‘those purposeful physical activities and related studies, normally undertaken within an educational context, which develop physical competence, help promote physical development, and enable participants to know about and value the benefits of participation’ (PEAUK 1994: 1). The Department of Education and Science (DES) said that ‘physical education in schools aims to develop control, co-ordination and mastery of the body. It is primarily concerned with a way of learning through action, sensation and observation’ (DES 1989a: 1).

Sport is commonly used to describe a physical activity that has a competitive element. The activity may be carried out by a professional player or by an unpaid enthusiast. Unpaid enthusiasts take part out of choice in their leisure time and very often have a regular commitment so to do. There is usually a cost involved in taking part in sport. Sport characteristically depends on the involvement of other people and in most cases needs some form of organised structure. Participants are often concerned with their level of performance. It is not uncommon for there to be spectators at sports events.

Recreation is a very broad term commonly used to describe activities participants choose to take part in during their leisure time. The motivation to take part may be related to relaxation, health promotion, having fun or mixing socially. These activities include physical activities which are characteristically non-competitive. Individuals can take part on their own, without necessarily needing others, and activities carried out in this context may not need an organisational structure. Participants are not necessarily concerned with their level of performance. They are not paid for their involvement and may take part regularly or irregularly. There may be a modest cost to participate. Rambling, swimming and aerobics are good examples here. Spectators are not involved.

Confusion arises between physical education, sport and physical recreation because many of the same activities are pursued in all three contexts. A description that seeks to differentiate between physical education and sport explains that:

Sport covers a range of physical activities in which adults and young people may participate. Physical Education on the other hand is a process of learning, the context being mainly physical. The purpose of this process is to develop specific knowledge, skills and understanding and to promote physical competence. Different sporting activities can and do contribute to that learning process, and the learning enables participation in sport. The focus however is on the child and his or her development of physical competence, rather than on the activity

(DES/Welsh Office (WO) 1991: 7)

Confusion arises between sport and recreation as the nature of the involvement depends very much on the personal viewpoint of each participant. For example, in a club tennis match some players may see themselves clearly involved in competitive sport while others may view participation as pure recreation, with the competitive element being incidental.

Aims examined

The discussion of the aims of physical education in this chapter is divided into three sections. The first section looks at aims as intrinsic or extrinsic to the subject while the second interrogates some examples of extrinsic aims. The third section looks at two approaches to presenting physical education in the context of the subject being intrinsically valuable.

Intrinsic/extrinsic aims of physical education or means/ends

One of the long-standing debates in physical education is about whether the subject has value in its own right, or is best seen as a useful vehicle through which desirable attributes can be acquired, for example personal qualities such as perseverance, social skills such as co-operation and cognitive skills such as problem solving. This debate is sometimes referred to as the means/end issue. Is the subject an end in itself or a means to other ends? Whichever option is taken there are further questions to be answered.

If it is advocated that physical education is worthwhile in its own right the case has to be made for the value of pupils participating in and becoming skilful at a range of physical activities. The focus here is on promoting physical development and enhancing physical competence. The recognition of the value of becoming a skilful participant may be easier to promote in respect of some activities than others. Activities that have a high profile nationally and can readily be continued into adult life, such as football, are more often supported than, for example, gymnastics. Activities that relate to personal survival such as swimming are more strongly supported than others such as dance. The more likely the support for some activities than others, however, has a ring of using the subject for extrinsic ends which, in the cases cited above, maybe the production of winning national teams and the prevention of accidental death.

What has to be formulated is a case for the value of becoming physically skilful per se. This case will have to take the brave stance of reminding the sceptic that we have physical capacities and potential and that these are fundamental to human existence and integral to human nature. Supporters would need to argue that these attributes are not inferior in the sense that the body/mind split has tended to label the body as of lesser importance. Physical attributes are part of the whole individual and cannot be separated off as a dispensable capacity. They are fundamental to the very being of humankind. Humankind, as far as is known, is characteristically embodied (see, for example, Whitehead 1990). If education is about nurturing all aspects of human potential, the physical has an indisputable place in the enterprise. If challenged to identify outstanding individuals who have achieved at the highest level, most people would include athletes alongside artists, philosophers, politicians and scientists. This in itself indicates that the physical dimension is celebrated alongside other dimensions.

If physical education is advocated as a means to achieving other ends, such as personal and social development, teachers of this subject have to face the challenge that other areas of the curriculum can also realise the same ends. If physical education does not bring anything unique to the curriculum and is only contributing to the broad aims of education, it could be argued that it is not time well spent and should be consigned to an extra-curricular programme.

There are at least two ways to answer this point. One is that the nature of physical education lends itself very clearly to pupils acquiring certain personal and social skills. For example, situations in physical education unequivocally demand team work, challenge pupils to be self-reliant and require pupils to use their imagination. Pupil responses are immedia...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Half Title Page
• Series Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• List of figures
• List of tables
• Notes on contributors
• Acknowledgements
• List of abbreviations
• Introduction to the series
• Introduction—Susan Capel and Susan Piotrowski
• PART I Introduction Aims of physical education
• PART II Issues concerned with your pupils
• PART III Issues concerned with teaching and learning
• PART IV Issues concerned with the curriculum
• PART V Conclusion
• Biblography
• Index