Chapter 1
Common-sense views and misconceptions about psychology
Introduction
Is psychology more interesting and worthy of study than you might think? Students and lecturers in the subject would say so, but that is to be expected. What people who study psychology often say is that it gives you an âahaâ experience. This is based on the distinction between trial-and-error learning, which involves trying out theories or hypotheses until the âcorrectâ answer is found, and just âfiddling aboutâ with the problem in the hope that the solution presents itself. âAhaâ is the expression of surprised happiness which comes with insight.
Perhaps more importantly and usefully, psychology teaches students a rich vocabulary through which they can describe and explain behaviour. Just as going to art galleries with art historians (or even better, a tape recording of their comments) can bring paintings to life because they are able to point out and describe minor details of major significance, so psychology teaches the student the language of behavioural description. Of course there is a joke about âpsychobabbleâ, which is the mis- or overuse of psychological language and concepts, but that usually occurs only in the popular press and by non-psychologists.
There is one other great feature of psychology: a number of the theories are counterintuitive, or not what common sense suggests. It is true that some findings and theories are pretty commonsensical but there are also a number that are not. Indeed, it is frequently the discovery of principles and processes behind non-commonsensical findings that leads to the âahaâ experience.
Nevertheless, many sceptics and some cynics have continued to maintain that all the findings in psychology really are only a form of common sense. Surely, they argue, human nature dictates what people are really like and there certainly is no shortage of opinion from philosophers on the topic of human nature.
Jeremy Bentham (1748â1832) described humans as rational beings, making choices and decisions in terms of enlightened self-interest. Le Bon (1841â1931) on the other hand stressed the irrationality and impulsiveness of people in crowds. Hobbes (1588â1679) viewed humans as selfish, nasty and brutish, whose striving had to be restrained by a powerful government. Rousseau (1712â78) saw the restraints of his civilization as the force that was destroying the nobility of the ânatural manâ, the noble savage. Furthermore, there are numerous philosophical treatises which carefully compare and contrast some of the major thinkers of our time: Marx, Darwin, Freud, LĂ©vi-Strauss, Chomsky, etc. It may also be argued that the major schools of psychology â Skinnerian behaviourism, psychoanalysis and humanistic psychology â have quite different theories about the essential nature of mankind (see Ch. 2).
Thinkers who have pondered human nature have typically asked the following sorts of questions: What are the differing views of human nature? How do these views explain behaviour in interactions among people? How do the behaviours explained and predicted by philosophies of human nature compare to the actual ongoing, observable ways in which people act? What types of societies and institutions are to be inferred from these views of human nature? How do these societies and institutions compare with existing social structures? Which of the views of human nature thus considered are most accurate? Which behaviours are most congruent and which behaviours are least congruent with this view of human nature? Where is it possible to place societal and institutional constraints upon behaviour, and how may these constraints be arranged to dampen or correct deviations and aberrations from human nature? How can constraints be placed or removed in order to maximize the good in man's basic nature?
The psychologist Wrightsman (1964) has argued that people's beliefs about human nature differ along six basic dimensions, each with positive and negative poles, which form the basis for his Philosophy of Human Nature Scale. The six dimensions are as follows:
1. Trustworthiness vs untrustworthiness
+ = | belief that people are trustworthy, moral and responsible |
- = | belief that people are untrustworthy, immoral and irresponsible |
2. Strength of will and rationality vs lack of willpower and irrationality
+ = | belief that people can control their outcomes and that they understand themselves |
- = | belief that people lack self-determination and are irrational |
3. Altruism vs selfishness
+ = | belief that people are altruistic, unselfish and sincerely interested in others |
- = | belief that people are selfish and self-centred |
4. Independence vs conformity to group pressures
+ = | belief that people are able to maintain their beliefs in the face of group pressures to the contrary |
- = | belief that people give in to pressures of group and society |
5. Variability vs similarity
+ = | belief that people are different from each other in personality and interests and that a person can change over time |
- = | belief that people are similar in interests and are not changeable over time |
6. Complexity vs simplicity
+ = | belief that people are complex and hard to understand |
- = | belief that people are simple and easy to understand |
Two of these dimensions of human nature concern beliefs in the variation that exists among individuals: similarity vs variability and complexity vs simplicity. So Wrightsman's six-dimension scale can be divided into two major variables or subscales: positive-negative (incorporating the dimensions of strength of will, trust, independence and altruism) and multiplexity (covering variability and complexity) which are by and large independent of one another.
One way to discover the real nature of human nature is, according to most psychologists, scientific experimentation and observation, but lay people do not use scientific evidence when forming their ideas about their fellows. Many believe in superstitions and old-wivesâ tales that have been perpe...