The Practice of Critical Discourse Analysis: an Introduction

Meriel Bloor, Thomas Bloor

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2013
• ISBN:
  9781134644773
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Languages & Linguistics
• Subtopic: Linguistics
• Index: Languages & Linguistics

This book provides an introduction to the aims, theories and practices of critical discourse analysis (CDA).
It is mainly concerned with the linguistic aspects of CDA. It provides an introduction to the different types of language analysis that are employed in CDA (frequency analysis, coversation, transitivity and reference, and figurative language, for example) and seeks to provide readers with the skills to apply them in different contexts to various types of texts: political speeches, marketing pieces, literary works, advertising, multimedia persuasive texts, discourses on race, gender, and politics.

1

Background and theory

Social action and discourse are inextricably linked.

(Scollon 2001)

1.1 This book and how to use it

This book is designed to provide a general introduction to the study of discourse and the practice of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). It introduces the social concerns of the discipline, and gradually introduces a range of techniques that are available to the critical discourse analyst. It seeks to develop readers’ awareness of language and ideology and provides practice in analytic skills applied to various types of discourse. We hope that those who read this book will become more sensitive to the role of discourse as a controlling force in society and have a deeper understanding of the way language is used to persuade and manipulate both individuals and social groups. We hope that readers of this book will feel more able to question their own roles as participants in conventional discourses and thus to engage effectively in discourses that work towards social justice.

In this first chapter, we give an overview of the field in general, introduce some technical terms, and give some indication of the development of the field.

Each chapter focuses on a different aspect of critical discourse analysis. Most chapters include an introduction to social issues of interest to discourse analysts, some examples of analysis, and some discussion of theory. Each chapter presupposes an understanding of what has come earlier in the book, so students may prefer to read each chapter in sequence.

Towards the end of each chapter there are Activities, with suggestions for discussions and practice in analysis. Finally, there is a section called Further study with suggestions for extra reading. To make the book easier to follow, we do not normally give references to other CDA work in the chapters themselves. Where we discuss other people’s research or use examples from it, we refer the readers to the sources in notes or in the Further study section.

Most technical terms are explained and illustrated as they are introduced. However, in case a technical term is not clear, a glossary and a short grammatical appendix at the end of the book have been provided.

1.2 The multidisciplinary nature of CDA

The word discourse itself has a number of complex uses, which are introduced later in this chapter, but for now we will use it to mean symbolic human interaction in its many forms, whether directly through spoken or written language or via gesture, pictures, diagrams, films, or music. In this book, the focus is on language with occasional references to gesture and pictures, but that is not because we see other types of discourse as less significant.

Where critical analysis has focused on the linguistic aspects of discourse, it has also been known as Critical Linguistics or Critical Linguistic Analysis (see Fowler et al, 1979). Because of the wide range of influences from different areas of study – not simply linguistic – the field is also known as Critical Discourse Studies. In this book, we make use of close analysis of texts, including functional linguistic analysis in some cases, but in addition we consider broader issues such as the social context of discourse, the role of discourse in social practices, and the function of specific texts. For these reasons, we have chosen to refer to the field, in the main, as CDA.

The branch of linguistics we use from time to time in this book is known as Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). This model of grammar stresses the importance of social context (the context of culture and the context of situation) in the production and development of language, both historically and in terms of meaning in individual discourse events. In addition, functional linguistics, unlike some branches of linguistics, has always been concerned not only with words and sentences, but also with longer texts and collections of texts (corpora) above the level of the sentence.

However, linguistic methods are not the only methods used in CDA and we recognize the strengths that can come from a multidisciplinary approach. The aims and objectives of linguistics differ from the aims of CDA. Linguists, in general, are concerned with the way in which language or discourse ‘works’, and their interest is in language for its own sake. Critical discourse analysts, on the other hand, are interested in the way in which language and discourse are used to achieve social goals and in the part this use plays in social maintenance and change.

This means that CDA shares interests – and sometimes methods – with disciplines that study social groups and social structures, such as anthropology, sociology, ethnography and ethnomethodology, and with disciplines that are concerned with human cognition and behaviour, such as cognitive and social psychology. In its methods, CDA also draws heavily on literary theory, and the philosophy of language and communication, particularly on work on speech acts and conversational maxims, which we return to later. Sociolinguistics has been influential in CDA, and many of those currently working in CDA are (or have been) sociolinguists.

These methods include: (1) context analysis (see Chapter 2); (2) observational techniques, such as ways of recording and transcribing natural language; (3) participant observation where the researcher has (or takes up) a role in the target discourse community in order to study the discourse processes; and (4) the use of informants, such as experts in particular fields, to explain or interpret what is happening in the target community with respect to its discourse practices.

In recent years, professionals from a variety of backgrounds have become interested in discourse issues. Historians, business institutions, lawyers, politicians and medical professionals, to name but a few, have used discourse analysis to investigate social problems relating to their work. Van Dijk (1997a), who prefers the term Critical Discourse Studies (CDS) for this reason, described it as ‘A new cross-discipline that comprises the analysis of text and talk in virtually all disciplines of the humanities and social sciences.’

A frequently reported example is the analysis of doctor–patient discourse; another is forensic linguistics, which investigates legal and police discourse. CDA examines practices and customs in society both to discover and describe how they work and also to provide a critique of those practices. To do this, it is necessary to try to understand, from one’s analysis: (1) what is going on in an event; and (2) whether it maintains the existing social structure or is likely to change or revise it. CD analysts identify and study specific areas of injustice, danger, suffering, prejudice, and so on, even though the identification of such areas can be contentious. While it is now widely accepted that many social problems arise from the injudicious use of language or other forms of communication, it is an open question how far beneficial effects can result from intervention in discourses alone. In this book, however, we take the view that CDA can help to raise awareness and point people in the direction of change.

1.3 Some examples of CDA practice

As a simple illustration, it is commonly recognized that we can be influenced, and sometimes misled, by persuasive language in the form of advertising or persistent marketing, much of which may distort the truth in subtle ways. The study of such texts is a legitimate and common area for CDA to engage in. Some of this work has focused on visual representation, some on written or spoken discourse and some on the complementary nature of the visual and the verbal. Awareness of the means used by advertisers can empower individuals to resist pressure to buy goods they may not need or even want. We return to this topic in Chapter 9.

Another set of social problems that we all recognize concerns issues in criminality. These include the identification of criminals, police interviewing techniques, confessions, and cross-examination in court. Forensic linguistics, as it is known, is an established branch of CDA. Work in forensic linguistics, which has involved the co-operation of police, lawyers, and others involved in the legal process, has been productive in establishing justice in specific cases and fairer practices in general. We return to this topic in Chapter 10.

It is worth noting that some social problems are particularly difficult to analyse and are better investigated by teams in which a discourse analyst works co-operatively with other professionals and the subjects of the study. For example, we can observe, often in our own homes, that families can develop aggressive speech styles, which then become habitual. These can be transmitted to the children who then use aggressive speech styles in a wider social context, such as a school playground. This can make it difficult for them to form viable friendships and can result in bullying either by others or by themselves. A critical discourse analyst would need to study such a family in some depth in order to reach any conclusions about how the situation could be improved. This could involve observation to identify the situations in the home where aggression is displayed, recordings of the conversations that ensue, further studies of the children outside the home, and so on. CDA could discover a great deal about what was going on in such a situation, but, in order to enact change, other professionals would need to be involved – perhaps child psychologists, social workers and certainly, of course, the teachers. For this reason, there is great scope for CDA as part of team research.

Which method or combination of methods is chosen depends on the choice of research question. This, in turn, depends partly on the nature of the social problem and partly on the disciplinary background of the analyst. Both these factors will influence the choice or combination of methods.

In this book, we refer to different types of analysis, ranging from the analysis of context, to the analysis of attitudes, stance and opinion and to the ways in which messages are carried and meaning is constructed in context. We see the immediate social context as inextricably linked to the discourse and the meaning as inextric-ably linked to the wording.

1.4 Matters of principle

In recent years there has been considerable discussion to establish the principles of CDA and to propose research goals for the discipline. Here we mention just a few of the principles that have been proposed.

Discourse analysts, in fact, all social researchers, are themselves tied to the discourse group they are investigating, either as members of the same social group or as observers of it. Often, the researcher holds similar beliefs and attitudes to the participants in the discourse that is under analysis. For this reason, they need to be highly critical of their own roles in the social structure and be prepared to make clear their own position with respect to the topic of research. Critical discourse analysts do not attempt the type of objectivity that is sometimes claimed by scientists or linguists, but recognize that such objectivity is likely to be impossible because of the nature of their experience. Instead, they are critical of and open about their own position.

Ethical practice is essential. Observation and recording of social behaviour can be an extremely sensitive matter. Proper permission must be sought, and issues regarding the privacy of individuals or named institutions must be carefully considered. This is particularly so in cases where publication is involved.

Most critical discourse analysts tolerate varied approaches. The discipline is relatively new and, as we have suggested above, contributions both to theory and practice come from an indefinite number of sources. What is more, it is a truly international project with contributions from many countries and many cultures. For this reason, it is difficult at the present time to define the boundaries of CDA as a discipline.

Some have identified crucial areas of social change where CDA can play a part. For example, Teun van Dijk’s research focuses on racism, Norman Fairclough is working on issues relating to global capitalism (or ‘new capitalism’), and Robert de Beaugrande is presently largely concerned with ecological issues.¹

Central to CDA is the understanding that discourse is an integral aspect of power and control. Power is held by both institutions and individuals in contemporary society and any challenge to the status quo challenges those who hold power. Thus a commitment to ‘social equality, fairness and justice’ is itself a challenge to those who are responsible for maintaining the inequalities, unfairness and injustice in contemporary society and must be of major concern to those who challenge the status quo.

The word ‘critical’ can sometimes be misleading. In its popular use, it is often used for a negative evaluation as in ‘The chair of the governors is really critical of the head teacher’, meaning that the chair thinks the head is not successfully running the school. In CDA, it is used more with the sense of critique, meaning that analysis may, on occasion, be directed towards a positive outcome, such as investigations of successful resistance texts (like those written during the anti-racial discrimination movements in the USA in the 1960s).

1.5 Language and institutions

Much social practice in complex modern society is institutionalized. Business, government, education, the law, for example, are essentially verbal. Sometimes, of course, communication in institutions also depends on pictorial, iconic or diagrammatic representation, and any face-to-face interaction involves facial expression, gesture and reference to the non-verbal, such as pointing to objects or pictures.

When we look at th...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• Acknowledgements
• 1. Background and theory
• 2. Discourse and social context
• 3. Positioning and point of view
• 4. Intertextual analysis
• 5. Figurative language, metaphor and message
• 6. The construction of identity
• 7. Politeness, power and solidarity
• 8. The discourse of prejudice
• 9. The discourse of consumerism
• 10. Discourse and the law
• Glossary
• Notes
• Grammar appendix
• References
• Index