The Roman Army, 31 BC - AD 337

A Sourcebook

Brian Campbell

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2006
• ISBN:
  9781134909407
• Edition: 1
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: Ancient History
• Index: History

The Roman army is remarkable for its detailed organisation and professional structure. It not only extended and protected Rome's territorial empire which was the basis of Western civilisation, but also maintained the politcal power of the emperors. The army was an integral part of the society and life of the empire and illustrated many aspects of Roman government. This sourcebook presents literary and epigraphic material, papyri and coins which illustrate the life of the army from recruitment and in the field, to peacetime and the community.
It is designed as a basic tool for students of the Roman army and Roman history in general.

1 The soldiers

RECRUITMENT

From 49 to 32 BC about 420,000 Italians were recruited, and this could not have been achieved without widespread conscription, which was generally unpopular. Augustus desired to bring peace and stability, but it seems that there were not enough volunteers to meet the manpower requirements of his standing army (probably about 5–6,000 men were needed every year to keep the legions up to strength), and he was unable to dispense with conscription. However he limited its incidence in Italy, though here too special levies were held in times of military crisis, as in AD 6 and 9. So, the number of Italians enlisting declined steadily and by Hadrian’s reign they formed a negligible proportion of the legions, presumably because they did not wish to enter a period of lengthy service far from their homes. Legionaries were recruited from provincial Roman citizens, or men to whom citizenship was given on enlistment. In the first century AD many recruits in the west came from Spain, Narbonensis, and Noricum, and in the east from the Greek cities of Asia and Macedonia. But a disinclination to serve away from home must also have influenced provincials, and references to the levy (dilectus) held in the provinces in the first and second centuries AD, which show that it was often accompanied by oppression, suggest that it must have involved conscription. Now, the government presumably preferred willing soldiers, who might be expected to fight enthusiastically in defence of their homeland and families, and this was probably a factor in the gradual movement towards local recruitment, which came to predominate after Hadrian. There will also have been fewer administrative problems in the transport and assignment of recruits. The likelihood that a soldier had a reasonable chance of serving near his home will have made military life more acceptable and may have encouraged the flow of volunteers. It is precisely in the late second and early third century, when a military career seemed most attractive, that the evidence suggests a predominance of volunteers. These considerations will also have applied to the recruitment of auxilia. However, Italians continued to enlist in the praetorian guard, which remained attractive with its superior service conditions and usual location in Rome, and newly-created legions tended to be recruited in Italy.

Special officers were appointed to collect recruits in certain areas, while elsewhere commanding officers were normally responsible for recruiting men to the units under their charge. In the absence of sufficient volunteers, Roman officials would have to rely on the local authorities of the cities to produce men from the territory under their jurisdiction. An examination (probatio or inquisitio) was held to ensure that recruits were physically fit and legally eligible to serve. There is no clear evidence that recruits were expected to have a letter of recommendation on enlistment (Forni 1953; 1974; Gilliam 1957a; Mann 1963; Davies 1969a; Brunt 1971:509–12; 1974a).

1 CPL 102, papyrus, Fayum, Egypt, AD 92

Titus Flavius Longus, orderly (optio) of Legion III Cyrenaica, in the century of Arellius (?), made a declaration [and gave as guarantors _ _ _] Fronto, in the century of Pompeius Reg[ _ _ _, and Lucius Longinus] Celer in the century of Cre[ _ _ _], and Lucius Herennius Fuscus, veteran, and stated on oath that he was freeborn and a Roman citizen, and had the right of serving in a legion.

Whereupon his guarantors, [ _ _ _ Fronto, and Lucius Longinus Celer, and Lucius Herennius Fuscus, declared on oath by Jupiter] Best and Greatest and the spirit of Emperor Caesar Domitian Augustus, Conqueror of the Germans that [the aforementioned Titus Flavius Longus] was freeborn and a Roman citizen and had the right of serving in a legion.

Transacted in the Augustan camp in the winter-quarters of Legion III [ _ _ _], year 17 of Emperor Caesar Domitian Augustus, Conqueror of the Germans, in the consulship of Quintus Volusius Saturninus and Lucius Venuleius Montanus Apronianus.

2 D 49. 16. 2. 1

(Arrius Menander (late 2nd C.AD), Bk. I On Military Affairs)

It is considered a serious crime for someone to enlist as a soldier if he is not permitted to do so, and the gravity is increased, as in other offences, by the dignity, rank, and type of military service.

Cf. D 49. 16. 4. 1–9; 16. 11; 16—people considered unsuitable for military service: slaves, those convicted and condemned to the beasts or deported, those who had been exiled, those convicted of adultery or another crime in the public jury courts, those actually involved in litigation, and deserters who enlisted in another arm of the service.

3 Pliny (1st–2nd C.AD), Letters 10. 29–30

Pliny to Emperor Trajan. Sempronius Caelianus, an excellent young man, sent to me two slaves who were discovered among the recruits; I postponed their punishment so that I could consult you, as founder and guarantor of military discipline, about the type of penalty. The fact about which I am particularly doubtful is that although they had already taken the oath of allegiance, they had not yet been enrolled in a unit. Therefore, Sir, I request that you write and inform me what course of action I should follow, especially since the decision may provide a precedent.

Trajan to Pliny. Sempronius Caelianus acted in accordance with my instructions in sending to you these men in respect of whom it will be necessary to conduct an investigation to see if they merit capital punishment. It is relevant if they offered themselves as volunteers or were conscripted or indeed were presented as substitutes. If they were conscripted, the examination was at fault; if they were presented as substitutes, the blame lies with those who presented them; if they enlisted of their own free will although they were fully aware of their own status, they will have to be executed. It is not of great significance that they have not yet been enrolled in a unit. For on that very day on which they were approved for service in the army, they ought to have given a true account of their origins.

Pliny was governor of Bithynia probably 109–11.

4 Vegetius (4th C.AD), Epitome of Military Matters 1. 6

The recruiting officer should diligently ensure that through a careful examination of their face, eyes, and physical constitution, he chooses men who are likely to prove good soldiers. For the qualities not only of a man but also of horses and dogs are revealed by many indications… The potential young recruit therefore ought to have alert eyes, should carry his head erect, have a broad chest, muscular shoulders, strong arms, long fingers, a small waist, slim buttocks, and legs and feet which are not fleshy but sinewy and strong. When you find all these indications in a recruit, you need not pay too much attention to his height, for brave soldiers are more valuable that tall ones.

Vegetius was writing after AD 383, but he collected material from many sources and periods and much of his work relates to an earlier age, though it is difficult to identify his source for this passage (see Barnes 1979).

5 Acts of Maximilianus 1. 1–5 (Musurillo 1972:17), AD 295

On 12 March at Tebessa in the consulship of Tuscus and Anullinus, Fabius Victor was brought into the forum along with Maximilianus; Pompeianus was allowed to act as their advocate. He said: ‘Fabius Victor, agent responsible for the recruiting tax (temonarius), is present along with Valerianus Quintianus, imperial officer (praepositus Caesariensis), and Victor’s son Maximilianus, an excellent recruit. Since he has the necessary qualities, I request that he be measured’.

Dion the proconsul said: ‘What is your name?’.

Maximilianus replied: ‘Why do you want to know my name? I am not permitted to serve in the army since I am a Christian’.

Dion the proconsul said: ‘Get him ready’.

While he was being made ready Maximilianus replied: ‘I cannot serve in the army; I cannot do evil; I am a Christian’.

Dion the proconsul said: ‘Let him be measured’.

When he had been measured, one of his staff said: ‘He is five feet ten inches tall’ (about 5 feet 8 inches in English measurements).

Dion said to his staff: ‘Give him the military seal’.

Maximilianus, continuing to resist, replied: ‘I am not going to do it; I cannot serve as a soldier’.

This is one of the more reliable of the Christian Martyr Acts, and may have been based on an official report of the trial. If so, it serves as a good example of the examination of a potential recruit in the first two centuries of the imperial period since it is unlikely that the general procedures had changed significantly. The military seal was a piece of lead containing a seal and the recruit’s name, which he wore round his neck. For minimum height requirements, see Vegetius, 1. 5.

6 P. Oxy. 39, papyrus, Oxyrhynchus, Egypt, AD 52

Copy of a release, signed in year twelve of Emperor Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, 29 Pharmuthi. Released from service by Gnaeus Vergilius Capito, prefect of both (Upper and Lower Egypt): Tryphon son of Dionysius, a weaver of the metropolis of Oxyrhynchus, suffering from cataract and impaired vision. The examination was conducted in Alexandria.

7 D 49. 16. 4. pr.

(Arrius Menander, Bk. I On Military Affairs)

A man born with one testicle or a man who has lost one, can legitimately serve in the army, according to a rescript of the divine Trajan. Indeed both the commanders Sulla and Cotta are said to have had that condition.

8 Suetonius (1st–2nd C.AD), Augustus, 24. 1

He (Augustus) sold off a Roman eques and his property at public auction because he had cut off the thumbs of his two young sons to make them unfit for military service.

Cf. D 49. 16. 4. 10–12. It was a serious offence to evade military service.

9 P. Oxy. 1022=Fink RMR 87, papyrus, Oxyrhynchus, Egypt, AD 103

Copy

Gaius Minicius Italus sends greetings to his own Celsianus. Give orders that the six recruits approved by me should be included in the roster of the cohort which you command, to take effect from February 19. I have appended their names and distinguishing marks to this letter. Farewell dearest brother.

Gaius Veturius Gemellus, age 21, no distinguishing mark

Gaius Longinus Priscus, age 22, a scar on left eyebrow

Gaius Julius Maximus, age 25, no distinguishing mark

[ _ _ _ ] Julius? Secundus, age 20, no distinguishing mark

Gaius Julius Saturninus, age 23, a scar on left hand

Marcus Antonius Valens, age 22, a scar on right side of forehead.

Received February 24, year six of our Emperor Trajan by means of Priscus, aide. I, Avidius Arrianus senior clerk (cornicularius) of the third (or second) cohort of Ituraeans declare that the original letter is in the archives of the cohort.

10 BGU 423=SP 112, papyrus, Fayum, Egypt, 2nd C.AD

Apion to Epimachus his father and lord, very many greetings. First of all I pray for your good health and that you may always be strong and fortunate, along with my sister, her daughter, and my brother. I give thanks to the lord Serapis because when I was in danger at sea he immediately saved me. When I got to Misenum I received three gold pieces from Caesar as my travelling expenses (viaticum). Everything is going well for me. So, I ask you, my lord and father, to write me...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Halftitle
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• List of plates
• List of maps and tables
• Preface and acknowledgements
• Abbreviations
• Emperors from Augustus to Constantine
• Weights, measures and money
• Introduction
• 1 The soldiers
• 2 The officers
• 3 The Emperor as commander-in-chief
• 4 The army in the field
• 5 The army in peacetime
• 6 The army, the local community, and the law
• 7 The army in politics
• 8 Veterans
• 9 The army in the later empire
• Select bibliography
• Index of translated passages
• Index of names and subjects