Essential Environmental Science

Methods and Techniques

Simon Watts, Simon Watts

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2003
• ISBN:
  9781134787678
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Ciencias biológicas
• Subtopic: Ciencia medioambiental

Essential Environmental Science brings together within a single volume the vast range of techniques, methods and basic tools necessary for the study of the environment.
Environmental science has a massive area of operation, utilising the tools from a plethora of traditional sciences and social sciences. This practical manual draws on contributions from leading experts in each field, to present both general and specific environmental methods and techniques within a unique interdisciplinary environmental perspective.
Essential Environmental Science offers an invaluable reference source for environmental study in both the laboratory and in the field.

Chapter 1

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The good scientist

Simon Watts and Lyndsay Halliwell

1.1 Laboratory and fieldwork logbooks

1.2 Designing the experiment

1.3 Predicting the answer

1.4 Significant figures and scientific notation

1.5 Errors and imprecision

1.6 Precision and accuracy

1.7 Quantifying error

1.8 Units and unit calculus

1.9 Data types

1.10 Concluding comments

1.11 Further reading

THE SKILLS OF A SCIENTIST are essentially twofold: scientists must be able to observe, and to record what they see. They must also have two attributes: they must be willing to learn, and (probably more important) they must have a raging curiosity. This must be something that drives them either to do what other people do not do, or to do it in a way that others do not. Now we will take a brief look at each of these skills, to define them a little more carefully, and then in this first chapter explore the tools that they give us to assist in the pursuit of knowledge.

The first skill is observation. Scientists must be able to observe. So what then is observation? We all see things in the world around us. Often though, whilst we look, we do not see. We make all sorts of assumptions about our environment and most of the information which is potentially available to us is screened out by those assumptions – we simply do not notice things. I have been repeatedly struck by the way small children always ask very pertinent questions in response to things they see or hear. They do not assume things, they look around, they see (or notice). Most importantly they are attempting at base level to understand why things are as they are. Their constant unconscious questions are something like: ‘What makes it tick?’ and ‘How does it fit together?’ Children are often described as ‘wonderful’, the literal meaning of this word is ‘full of wonder’.

Observation is about general awareness of the reasons for what we see, quantitative or ‘thoughtful looking’ if you will. In the arena of science you will generally be observing specifically – you will be doing a particular experiment, or looking for something in particular. In this case observation is about understanding what you are doing and being able to see the implications of one particular type of behaviour. This usually means that you will have read up on it beforehand, because only then will you know: (a) what you are supposed to see; (b) whether what you are seeing is what you are supposed to see; and finally (c) reasons for things that you may have recognised.

The second skill is that of recording what you have observed. Here again it is not mindless recording, but directed and thoughtful. The best scientists record what they see, what their interpretation of that observation is, as well as their thoughts about it and its implications. There are also some mechanical things like the date, time, and weather, but these simply require a little discipline. The main result of your recording will be your notebooks. Section 1.1 gives detailed guidelines on keeping a laboratory or field notebook. It is of more than passing interest to note that, increasingly, the results of litigation are down to what scientists have actually recorded in their notebooks – the books themselves are called as evidence.

There is very little to say about the two attributes necessary to be a scientist. You will either have them or not have them. Even if you possess them, unless you cultivate the necessary skills, you are likely to be a liability rather than an asset to any scientific undertaking.

1.1 Laboratory and fieldwork logbooks

Keeping a good notebook/logbook requires organisation and effort. As a guide, you will have been successful if, at a later date, someone of your own level after reading your logbook (and anything else you had access to e.g. practical script), could understand (and, if necessary, duplicate) what you have done and why. Most courses in the environmental sciences contain both field and laboratory work. Although the same style and outcome are desirable in logbooks from both, the different environments make rather different demands on the materials of construction. For the laboratory, the notebook should be bound, it should be A4, and is best if it contains alternate graph paper leaves. For fieldwork, a notebook with waterproof pages, usually A6 size is preferable.

Some things are common to both field and laboratory situations. All logbooks should have your name on them, and some method for return if lost (e.g. your address). If you are working in groups, then the names of your colleagues should also be at the front along with your contact method; e.g. postal or email addresses, phone numbers or whatever. Contents pages are essential. Box 1.1 contains guidance on how to keep a good logbook.

BOX 1.1 EXPERIMENTAL LOGBOOKS

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Each individual exercise should be dated. The title and aims of the experiment or visit should be written in at the beginning. If you are in a field situation the weather conditions, and site (usually 6 figure OS references) should be noted, along with how you got there, for example.

We left the minibus at the National Trust car park at Peter Tovy by ‘The Ravaged Lamb’ public house (B3212). We then took the public footpath round the back of the pub down the hill (about half a mile) until we reached the exposure (Grid SX695581).

For laboratory exercises the apparatus you use should be sketched in as should any observations you make or problems that you encounter during the experiment. You may wish to stick in parts of the lab script or instructions into your logbooks.

First, all experimental observations should be written into your logbook. This is the primary document and contains all your data observations etc. It should contain an (almost) blow by blow account of your time in the laboratory or field. Observations made throughout the expe...

Table of contents

• Front Cover
• Essential Environmental Science
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Contents
• List of figures
• List of tables
• List of boxes
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• 1 The good scientist
• 2 Sampling
• 3 Use of statistics
• 4 Surveying
• 5 General laboratory equipment and techniques
• 6 Soils
• 7 Waters
• 8 Ecological fieldwork methods
• 9 Social surveys
• 10 Safely
• APPENDIX 1 Mathematical constants and formulae
• APPENDIX 2 Statistical tables
• APPENDIX 3 Detailed field and chemical methods for soils
• Index