Interactive Play for Children with Autism

Diana Seach

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2012
• ISBN:
  9781134260362
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

This is a comprehensive guide to establishing shared play experiences that assist in the development of communication, social understanding and cognition.

Easily accessible, and packed full of practical resources, the book defines the importance of play both developmentally and psychologically as having a major influence on the enrichment of meaningful interactions and children's learning.

Diana Seach expertly discusses how play enables children with Autism to:

• represent their knowledge of the world and their relationships with others
• spontaneously explore ways of thinking about themselves and the objects they encounter
• develop communication and companionship
• discover motivating ways to learn
• extend their imagination and creative potential.

Those who live and work with children who have Autism and Asperger Syndrome will find Interactive Play for Children with Autism an invaluable tool when implementing strategies to develop interactive play in educational establishments, care settings and the family home.

Chapter 1

Valuing play

For children, play is an expression of their unique interaction with the world. Their playful engagement with objects and activities enables them to establish a dialogue with all that they encounter, creating experiences that promote their emotional well-being, transforming their knowledge and establishing a sense of belonging to a particular social and cultural group. Play emerges through a vast array of relationships and experiences that are defined by the quality of the interactions with significant people and places in the child’s life. This is because play development for all children relies on others to both facilitate and support their play experiences. In these defining attributes are the foundations of human development.

Cognitive developmental theories have dominated much of the literature on play and as such they have considerably influenced attitudes towards the value of play in children’s development (Wood and Attfield 1996; Sutton-Smith 1997; Wolfberg 1999). This perspective has also influenced interpretations of play and its functions and has tended to ignore some of the intrinsic elements of human adaptability and emotional dependency that the act of playing provides. An inevitable consequence of this is the notion of play deficits in children with impaired cognitive development. This can undermine the quality of the experience for the individual and result in further deprivations in both play and development. By removing the concept of a deficit in play, it becomes easier to identify how and why the individual uses play to seek out ways to interact with his or her environment. Play should not only be defined in terms of its extrinsic functions and the effects on knowledge acquisition and socialization as this does not fully support a discussion on the benefits of play. A more detailed perspective is one that incorporates and gives as much importance to the intrinsic functions that focus on the development of the self, identity and emotion through the individualization of the experience.

Whether a child is playing alone or with others, with or without objects, play represents an attempt to gain mastery over an experience that has particular significance to him or her. Even if a child is not playing with an object representationally, it remains true that it provides a symbolic function. This occurs because the child is absorbed in a playful activity that is pleasurable, engaging, motivating and active. It is through the manipulation and use of objects and the way in which this allows for shifts between reality and fantasy that children will transfer their feelings and symbolize how they want to respond to their environment. For the child, the content and outcome of play is always based on the intrinsic value of the experience and the way in which it is interpreted and processed. This is particularly relevant in terms of how others interpret and assess children’s play potential.

When implementing play approaches for children with autism it is vital to consider why they need to play, and how their play is regarded developmentally as being both intentional and purposeful as they actively explore ways to learn about the world. By looking into the play of children with autism, rather than just at it, it is possible to recognize the immense value and effect that playing has on their lives.

The role of play in development

Most literature on the subject of play concludes that it is impossible to identify how play can have discrete influences on children’s emotional, cognitive and social development and that what is required is a holistic approach to play and development. Jennings (1999) expresses some concern over particular theoretical orientations towards the role of play in children’s development. She emphasizes that much scientific research and interpretation can in fact limit our understanding and views of play. As much of the literature and research on play in children with autism has focused on the deficits in play behaviours, this perspective can be supported to some extent; rather than view the play of children with autism from a developmental paradigm, its use has often been limited to the teaching of specific social or cognitive skills. However, one of the possible outcomes of teaching social skills through play training is that social development may continue to be impeded because of the lack of spontaneity and affective engagement. More importantly, children need to satisfy their own drive to explore the world through play supported by a wide variety of play experiences made available to them by their main carers. It therefore becomes more beneficial to focus on the observable progression within a play activity to identify its effects on development.

Vygotsky (1978) believed that play is not only significant in reflecting development but also in leading it and his theories have been influential in promoting the importance of play as a vehicle for social interaction. Vygotsky’s view was that play was vital in mediating cognitive growth but the potential for this only occurs when there is an adult facilitating the child’s learning experience. It is the interplay of the contextual nature of the play, the child’s disposition and the role of the play partner that will significantly affect the development of social understanding and social behaviour. Thus a child who remains isolated from such experiences will not gain the knowledge required for establishing social relationships. In order to acquire these social competencies, children need play experiences that take place within a social context. Children do not develop in isolation, nor through manipulation, but through interaction. ‘Play is in advance of development, for in this manner children begin to acquire the motivation, skills and attitudes necessary for their social participation, which can be fully achieved only with the assistance of their peers and elders’ (John-Steiner and Souberman, cited in Vygotsky 1978: 129).

For the young infant, interaction with a primary caregiver is their first experience of social play. Throughout these exchanges there is constant encouragement for the child to develop independent actions and thoughts. The caregiver provides assistance as and when it seems appropriate so that the child is gradually being prepared psychologically and socially for their future independence. Vygotsky’s developmental model of play recognized that such play is also vital in helping children to self-regulate their emotions. Children learn to remain a part of the play scenario because it appears intrinsically motivating to do so. He observed that children’s ability for self-regulation and their social behaviour during play is frequently more evident than in other socially demanding or non-play situations. I have often observed that when the focus of the play between the child and a play partner is one of mutual engagement, such as ‘rough and tumble’ play, chasing or bouncing on a trampoline, the child with autism displays significantly more skills in social interaction and emotional reciprocity than at other times. As Jordan (2003: 351) writes: ‘Such play is the context for learning about intimacy, trust, negotiation and compromise, concepts and skills that are vital to forming and maintaining friendships.’

The origins of self and identity are also rooted in the emotional states that are created by the young infant’s innate ability and his or her interaction with people and the environment. When they are playing with another person, children are involved in an activity in which they learn to experience a wide range of emotions that help in regulating both social and cognitive behaviour. According to Thompson (1991) it is the child’s emotion that guides and motivates the adaptive mental processes. It is important to make a distinction between the emotions that a child might be experiencing as a result of playing and what he or she understands as an emotion. Play for the child can be an exciting, absorbing experience or it can become frustrating and challenging, but within the context of play, the child is learning to develop an awareness of his or her own emotional competence. It is through the interaction with a caregiver that the child’s emotional expressions are not only supported but also mirrored, and this is a vital component in the development of social understanding. In the same way, the development of an empathetic relationship is crucial in helping the child to feel secure and develop confidence. The child can then make use of past experiences to accommodate incoming information more effectively.

Cognitive theories have emphasized that human developmental potential involves a much more complex interplay of experiences, which may or may not occur through play but nonetheless will have a profound effect at critical periods in a child’s life. Piaget (1962) attempted to link his developmental stages of early childhood and brain maturation to developments in play. He saw play as a behaviour that emerges as a result of combining skills, knowledge and understanding to create a learning experience, and this perspective has come to influence much of the practice in current early childhood education. It is, however, an oversimplification to link play and cognitive development as Piaget did, particularly in relation to the identification of types of play. Many of these stages of play exist through to adulthood and can occur at different levels of complexity across the lifespan. Because play is predominantly social in origin, the infant can be observed engaging in rule-governed play at a much younger age than was previously assumed. Even with a game of peek-a-boo the child soon learns that there is a rule to the play with another person. Whatever the nature of the play, it should not be dependent upon a set of age-related criteria, as what may be considered as appropriate play for a young child may still be an enjoyable activity for an adult; for example, building sand-castles on the beach. Play is not a stage that we have to go through to reach adulthood, but is a continuing feature of how we have fun, make discoveries, take risks and accept challenges throughout our lives.

The notion of developmental stages in play can also affect interpretations of what is or is not play behaviour and can result in some play being disregarded as lacking in quality and purpose. Observations of children with autism playing frequently reveal skills in perseveration, experimentation, memory and concept formation, which are all aspects of cognitive development. Variations in perceptual understanding, motor control and pro-active responses have as much to do with individual differences in development as the extent to which relevant experiences are presented to the child to practise these skills.

Piaget’s theory of play development linked to cognitive growth only relates to skill acquisition and takes little account of the creative and affective nature of the play. It is inappropriate to regard children’s play merely in terms of a behaviour linked to a set of intellectual competencies when what is being communicated at an emotional level may give us more of a clue to the progress a child is making. For children with autism, and indeed adults, it is crucial to interpret play in terms of its relevance for the individual, how it is sustaining his or her interest, what emotions are being expressed and whether it is process led or goal directed.

Play potential

Landreth (2001) emphasizes the fundamental qualities that exist when children engage in activities that support their developmental needs. In recognizing the importance of play in development this implies that all children, regardless of their abilities, need to play.

Play is an integral part of childhood, a unique medium that facilitates development, social skills, decision making skills and cognitive development in children. Play is also a medium for exploration and discovery of interpersonal relationships, experimentation with adult roles, and understanding of one’s own feelings. Play is the most complete form of self expression developed by the human organism.

(Landreth 2001: 4)

Children’s potential in play has to be recognized and encouraged by those adults who have a responsibility for their well-being and development. Young infants show a strong desire to be active and explore the environment and will make use of whatever means are available to them. Although play becomes the most effective method by which to achieve this, there may be difficulties in defining what that play is. Some children will resort to engaging in activities in ways that others may consider inappropriate or have little value, whereas some children do not necessarily seek out others to play with them. Children who are given limited access to toys, objects or physical contact, or who do not receive sufficient attention from others, will find ways to occupy themselves that are frequently referred to as self-stimulating or reactive behaviours, such as rocking, screaming, tearing, emptying and destroying. Similarly, some children may be so overwhelmed with too many toys and from not knowing what to do that they withdraw and then appear not to be able to play. This may lead some to suggest that children either cannot or will not play.

As Greenspan and Wieder (1998) state, so often children with special needs are not given appropriate opportunities to play because more functional activities are deemed more relevant for the child to learn. Consequently, they can miss out on play experiences, particularly those that form the basis for developing communication and establishing relationships. Educational establishments and some early intervention programmes for children with autism need to be particularly sensitive to placing too many expectations on a child who, developmentally, is not ready for a more formal approach to learning. When learning is predominantly controlled by adults there is a risk that opportunities for self-directed learning are limited to those times when the child is left alone to ‘occupy herself’. In these circumstances the child is less likely to engage in spontaneous interaction and may show only a limited response to new and stimulating experiences. To bring about changes in the child’s functioning and behaviour it is important to establish more opportunities for interaction that are child led and match the level at which he or she is functioning. It is essential for growth that children:

• gain experience that is relevant to them;

• learn through activities that challenge them;

• develop skills that support their development;

• are given an opportunity to have a choice;

• recognize how to manage change.

While it is important to acknowledge that children should be given a variety of experiences which enable them to respond in ways that are uniquely individual, play also provides a highly supportive framework in which this can be achieved. Sutton-Smith (1997: 225) describes play as having a role in the ‘actualization of brain potential’. For many children with autism, their potential for play is contingent upon the extent to which adults provide the appropriate opportunities and resources to enhance their play experiences. The role of the adult in schools and at home is vital not only in planning and resourcing opportunities for play, but also in the active engagement that they have with the child in their play. The adult needs to take on the role of being not only a play provider, but also a play partner so that when the child’s play is spontaneous and engaging, it provides an opportunity for the adult to interact with the child, to create meaning and support both learning and development. It is through a more dynamic approach to children’s learning and play that their potential can be realized.

Learning through play

In 2002, the National Foundation for Educational Research (NFER) commissioned research on international perspectives in Early Years Education. All of the twenty countries involved in the study acknowledged that play has a major role in the holistic development and well-being of children and, as it is the most significant occupation of early childhood, undoubtedly, all children will learn through it. One of the outcomes of the study was the recognition that there needs to be an important balance between learning through child-initiated play activities and play that is directed by adults.

Too much emphasis on adult-directed approaches to learning may limit children’s opportunities to be more spontaneous and explore their own learning potential through play. As shown in Figure 1.1, for effective learning to take place a balance between adult-led teaching and child-initiated activities is paramount. Although this is not likely to be achieved solely through play, it does, however, provide a framework for planning quality learning experiences. The components identified in both child-initiated and adult-led activities are not exclusive. They are interchangeable and, to some extent, interdependent, as it is ultimately the responsibility of the adult to ensure that children have access to a variety of learning experiences. Moyles (1989) describes this as a ‘play spiral’ in which directed play by the adult is channelled through children’s spontaneous or free play. The potential for learning is thus more effective than when it is based solely on structured teaching. Bruner (1966) refers to the adult’s role as one of scaffolding children’s learning and development, thus ensuring greater potential in the child’s ability to engage in social learning.

Structuring children’s play has become an essential aspect of early childhood education. It has also led to much debate about what constitutes an effective intervention for the delivery and content of children’s learning experiences and the assumption that children are only learning through play when it is structured. Within an educational context, play is always seen as structured as it is dependent upon the adults and the resources they provide to facilitate what takes place in the learning environment. Integral to this, however, is t...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Halftitle
• Title
• Copyrights
• Dedication
• Contents
• List of figures
• Acknowledgements
• Foreword
• Preface
• 1 Valuing play
• 2 A model of interactive play
• 3 Establishing connection
• 4 Enabling communication
• 5 Creating meaning
• 6 Developing imagination
• 7 The smile programme for families
• 8 Interactive play in schools
• Bibliography
• Index