Mental Toughness

The Mindset Behind Sporting Achievement, Second Edition

Michael Sheard

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2012
• ISBN:
  9781136245237
• Edition: 2
• Topic: Psicologia
• Subtopic: Storia e teoria della psicologia

Mental toughness is one of the most common terms used in sport – by athletes, coaches, spectators and the media. However, it is also one of the least understood terms. This book examines the characteristics and development of mentally tough sport performers, and presents the cutting-edge research in this area. Within these chapters, the author proposes that mental toughness is a personality style and mindset, and presents a compelling case for its inclusion within the positive psychological paradigm.

This second edition has been updated to include new material on the characterisation, conceptualisation, measurement, and development of mental toughness. As in the first edition the book includes a historical overview of empirical research, and also describes the conceptual arguments behind this research.

Now packed with even more rigorous scientific evidence and bang up-to-date anecdotes from the world of sport, the book presents a fascinating explanation of why some athletes are successful, and how and why they stay on top. Mental Toughness: The Mindset Behind Sporting Achievement will be essential reading for all sport psychology, sport science, sport studies, and coaching students.

1 Introducing mental toughness

A leader is a dealer in hope.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Introduction

It has been suggested that: ‘A sporting contest is defined by the pursuit of a victor. Other benefits of a more altruistic and social nature may accrue from sport, but, in essence, the challenge is set down: to find a winner’ (G. Davies, 2007: 19). This is a sentiment echoed by Olympic champion Sir Matthew Pinsent: ‘Sport is all about rising to the challenge, whether it is laid down by your own limitations, the prowess of your opposition or the magnitude of the event; to win you have to have the ability to overcome’ (Pinsent, 2009: 62). Indeed, our enduring fascination with sport may very well be attributed to ‘its sole objective criterion – winning’ (B. Moore, 2009b: S17). Nowhere is this struggle for quantifiable supremacy more intense than at the very highest competitive levels, where sport is no longer a pastime, run and organised by amateurs. Sport’s essence is ‘competition, if not conflict; more so when it is the livelihood of the participants’ (B. Moore, 2009c: S15), and it exists in a culture where, as Manchester United FC’s manager Sir Alex Ferguson said: ‘The pressure never eases . . . where if you’re not winning every game then swoosh, kick in the teeth’ (as cited in Winter, 2009d: S5) and ‘you are in to win and you can’t lose too many or you lose your job . . . we are all subject to winning’ (as cited in Rich, 2010: 5). Wales rugby union head coach Warren Gatland summed up such a culture after a narrow loss: ‘At the end of the day it’s about winning and we lost’ (as cited in S. James, 2010c: S19).

Competitive sport has developed into a well-established global industry, operating in an increasingly competitive world (Stead, 2003); and, to some extent, functions to make money (see Hannon, 2010; Hirshey & Bennett, 2010; Pearson, 2011), too often with deplorable consequences and sapping much of the joy. Nowadays, there is a far greater commercial importance attached to how individuals and teams achieve success. Sport is a multibillion pound business that competes for scarce resources and uses, among other things, commercial and professional management techniques (Robinson, 1999, 2003). These developments have moved sport organisations towards a more professional and bureaucratic structure (Byers, 2004; Old, 2004; Slack & Hinnings, 1992). In this push towards efficiency, effectiveness, and value for money, it has become of even greater interest to players, coaches, administrators, spectators, and owners (and, increasingly, shareholders and sponsors) to identify qualities associated with superior sport performance as a first stage in facilitating their development. When it comes down to it, there are two qualities that are necessary for victory in any sport: ability and mental toughness.

I am concerned primarily with the latter although, naturally, each affects the other. The two enjoy a symbiotic relationship. Mental toughness is just as important as natural talent. At the top level of any sport, all the challengers have the requisite technical skills, but it necessitates mental toughness to use that talent consistently to become a champion athlete. As Dutch international footballer Robin Van Persie stated: ‘I think it’s the combination you have to have – the mental toughness and the talent. You have to put in the quality but as well as have the mental strength to do it over and over again’ (as cited in Hytner, 2010b). Such a viewpoint corroborates the observation of experienced football manager Sam Allardyce: ‘You can only play in the Premier League if you have that mental toughness . . . The ability comes after that’ (as cited in Szczepanik, 2009: 8). Similarly, Steve Bruce’s eulogy of his former Manchester United FC teammate Ryan Giggs: ‘His natural ability has made him the player he is but so has his mentality’ (as cited in L. Taylor, 2009: 5) – reflects that it is about matching sporting capability with an evoking mentality. Manchester United and Scotland midfielder Darren Fletcher reflected: ‘In the big games especially, I’m of the opinion that sometimes it’s more psychological than about actual ability. I’m a great believer in that. A big percentage of the game is played in your head’ (as cited in Ducker, 2010a: 9). In the aftermath of back-to-back title-damaging defeats, France international footballer, and then of Arsenal FC, Samir Nasri spoke of the team being galvanised: ‘We wanted to prove we have the strength and the mentality to be winners . . . Last year we made some mistakes . . . We are stronger in our heads. Now it is 90 per cent in the mind. If you don’t have the mentality you can’t use your technique’ (as cited in Lawrence, 2010: 4). England cricketer Ian Bell recognised the need to work on his mental toughness in addition to his technical skills (Hoult, 2009d). It has been suggested that the travails of Australian cricket captain Ricky Ponting in the 2010–11 Ashes series were born of mental turmoil: ‘If you accept that batting is 25 per cent technical and 75 per cent mental, and that his technique, while not flawless, has held him in pretty good stead all these years, it must have been a mental aberration . . . his mind is scrambled’ (S. Hughes, 2010e: S6). While the longest tennis match in history elicited this summary: ‘It is very rare that a single sports match takes players to the edge of their capacity in so many different areas: physical fitness, mental toughness, competitive fire’ (E. Smith, 2010).

To place emphasis on the identification of ability and a personality style is to subscribe to the view that ‘sport is neither a moral nor a philosophical undertaking but an athletic and a psychological one’ (Syed, 2007: 71), and that the person is a psychophysical unity – something that has both physical and mental attributes (McGinn, 2008). Personality is known as a source of moderator variables, and is more likely to manifest in interaction effects, such as influencing the likelihood of actualising one’s ability into achievement (Aidman & Schofield, 2004). The field of sport psychology, in particular, has striven to understand and predict performance excellence primarily on the basis of personality (P. S. Miller & Kerr, 2002). Considerable evidence exists within the extant sport psychology literature that desirable psychological attributes contribute significantly to superior sport performance. (See Note 1.) Moreover, it has been suggested that as sport performers move up towards elite levels, only those with adaptive personality characteristics advance (Deaner & Silva, 2002). This is exemplified by former Great Britain No. 1 tennis player Annabel Croft’s admission to lacking the emotional toughness necessary to cope with the defeats she suffered in trying to move upward in her sport (Preston, 2008).

At this level, the differences between competitors in technical, tactical, and physical ability are minimal (Moran, 2004). Improvements in diet, hygiene, and medical science have led to the healthiest, most physically robust sportspeople ever known, with, at the highest competitive level, a generation of near equals ‘stronger, hardier and more resistant than at any time in history’ (Goodbody, 2002: 32). Athletes are carefully prepared, both physically and technically. Physical and technical abilities are more evenly matched at higher levels especially, so personality becomes increasingly significant, thus demonstrating that ‘sport is about the revealing of character and inner spirit as much as it is about technical brilliance’ (Cleary, 2005b: S6). This is evidenced in the words of three-time Tour de France champion Alberto Contador, who spoke of his 2010 contest with Andy Schleck, after a particularly gruelling stage, as ‘a psychological war, we’re both at more or less the same level physically and this was a test of minds’ (as cited in Fotheringham, 2010: 15). Team Sky and Great Britain’s cycling general manager Dave Brailsford recognised the importance of rider psychology: ‘To keep going for three weeks on a bike is such a monumental physical effort, to carry on must largely be in the mind. That is where there is an opportunity. Psychology will be everything’ (as cited in White, 2010c: S10).

As long ago as the 1960s and, in particular, in readiness for their magnificent 1970 Fifa World Cup triumph, the Brazil soccer team recognised that psychological preparation was as important as technical and tactical arrangements. Four decades later, in preparation for the 2010 tournament, England head coach Fabio Capello employed a sport psychologist, Christian Lattanzio, who doubled as a translator (Burt, 2010). World champion boxer Alex Arthur insists that: ‘It’s important your mind is as strong as your body. Boxing makes demands of you that no other sport does. The real battlefield is in the mind, not in the gym or on the road’ (as cited in Halliday, 2010: 11). Formula One’s 2008 and 2009 world champions, respectively, sum it up – Lewis Hamilton: ‘The biggest challenge is defeating your opponents mentally’ (as cited in Ross, 2007), and Jenson Button: ‘Mentally it’s so, so draining . . . It’s more tough mentally than physically’ (as cited in Weaver, 2011: 11).

To this end, athletes’ ability to focus attention, to control performance imagery, and a total commitment to the pursuit of excellence have been identified as critical psychological attributes (Orlick & Partington, 1988). Undoubtedly, the advice of one of the most successful Test cricket captains, the West Indies’ Clive Lloyd, holds true: ‘If you want to improve at your sport, you have to be dedicated, do little else, train hard’ (Lloyd, 2007: 90). But, ultimately, those athletes with the appropriate psychological attributes make the transition upward because their personalities facilitate the adjustment. Success in any sport starts in the mind. The New Zealand rugby union team, 2011 world champions and the consistently world-ranked No. 1 All Blacks, has an idiom that sums it up perfectly: ‘It’s all about the top two inches’ (Loe, 2007). The failing is in the head. Indeed, it has been written of the All Blacks that: ‘They have a mindset that is unique. It is what sets them apart’ (Greenwood, 2010b: S2).

From findings of the current literature, it is apparent that several specific personality characteristics have been indicated that ameliorate sport performance. After reviewing this research, sport psychologists Jean Williams and Vikki Krane concluded: ‘Regardless of the source of data or the nature of the sport, a certain psychological profile appears to be linked with successful performance’ (J. M. Williams & Krane, 2001: 174–175). This general profile cited self-regulation of arousal, high self-confidence, heightened concentration, coping skills for dealing with distractions and unexpected events, feeling in control, a positive preoccupation with sport, and determination and commitment (the very attributes which we will see later are constitutive of mental toughness) as key psychological characteristics distinguishing successful from less successful athletes.

In two separate studies, Dan Gould and his associates reported that 73 per cent and 82 per cent, respectively, of their sample pools (i.e., sport performers, coaches, parents, siblings, significant others) identified ‘mental toughness’ as a vital characteristic associated with successful performance (D. Gould, Dieffenbach, & Moffett, 2002; D. Gould, Hodge, Peterson, & Petlichkoff, 1987). Indeed, in the D. Gould et al. (2002: 186) study, the largest higher-order theme from their interviews was ‘mental toughness’, comprised of raw data responses such as ‘mentally tough, perseverance, resilient, and persistent’. In a similarly explorative study of the mental skills of National Hockey League players, one interviewee stated that: ‘Mental toughness is probably the biggest thing [needed for success] in hockey’ (Barbour & Orlick, 1999: 29). In addition, high-performance kick-boxers were in agreement that psychological hardiness and mental toughness were necessary in order to become a successful tournament fighter (Devonport, 2006). More recent research has also recognised mental toughness as important for success (Bullock, Gulbin, Martin, Ross, Holland, & Marino, 2009). Thus, this personality style appears to be central to overall performance excellence.

However, mental toughness is probably one of the most used but least understood terms in sport psychology. Stemming in part from Jim Loehr’s research, it is widely alluded to by athletes and coaches, as well as in the popular media and in applied sport psychology, as a crucial prerequisite of success in sport (Loehr, 1986). Indeed, researchers have felt the need to re-label sport psychology as ‘mental toughness’ in order to sell it to English soccer academy directors and national coaches (Pain & Harwood, 2004). Why do some athletes and teams perform a little better in pressure situations? How do some performers cope with being ‘iced’ (e.g., dealing with a time-out called just before taking a field-goal or free-throw, or facing a goalkeeper who continually mucks about ahead of a penalty)? What separates those who thrive on elite competition from those who collapse under pressure? Why do some athletes and teams succeed in the face of adversity while others fail? Why do some performers bounce back from personal failure whereas others are beleaguered by it? Why have some athletes consistently underachieved? Many suggest that the answer lies in mental toughness.

According to Jason Robinson, a Rugby World Cup winner in 2003 and an all-time great in both rugby codes: ‘Mental toughness is as important as physical toughness’ (as cited in Lynch, 2008). While former Republic of Ireland international footballer Tony Cascarino placed even greater emphasis on its influence, suggesting that: ‘Mental toughness can make the difference between success and failure’ (Cascarino, 2009: 14). Again from soccer, it has been suggested that: ‘On the pitch, mental toughness is a most important attribute’ (The Secret Footballer, 2012, p.1). Accepting the enormous challenge of tackling southern hemisphere supremacy in rugby league, England head coach Steve McNamara acknowledged: ‘Mental toughness is an area that we need to look at’ (as cited in Bott, 2010). Indeed, it has been suggested that at the highest competitive levels ‘the essential extra element is mental toughness’ and that ‘this mental toughness needs training just as much as the ability to hit a ball straight and far’ (G. Faulkner, 2006: 27). In the second of her Olympic triumphs in Athens in 2004 (the 1,500 metres), Kelly Holmes’ ‘mental toughness was truly awesome as she dominated the race’ (Redgrave, 2011). And, in the midst of the fallout from his infidelity scandal, Tiger Woods has been described as ‘still the mentally toughest athlete on the planet’ (Gregory, 2010). It would appear that to progress from strong performer to champion, the breakthrough ingredient is mental toughness. It is this attribute that allows sport performers to act in an instinctive and automatic way at the most important moments and the turning points of a competition or other high-stakes situations. But what exactly is ‘mental toughness’?

Popular mental toughness

Across a multitude of sports, athletes often attribute achievement and success to ‘mental toughness’. Upon reaching the considerable milestone of a century of centuries in first-class cricket, and becoming only the 25th player in the history of the game ever to do so, Surrey and England batsman Mark Ramprakash said: ‘I had so many knocks, so many low scores, so many setbacks, and have shown a lot of mental toughness to keep going – despite the blows’ (as cited in Kimmage, 2008: 19). Also from cricket, of Alastair Cook’s second innings century for England against Sri Lanka in Galle, it was written that: ‘Amid the disappointments, it was great to see such mental toughness from someone so young, right at the end of the tour’ (Hoggard, 2007: 62). Interviewed on his recall to the England One-Day International side, wicketkeeper Matt Prior reflected: ‘When you are left out, people give you stick and say that is the end and he will never be back. To come back and perform for Sussex the way I have I am quite proud of. It shows mental toughness’ (as cited in Hoult, 2008: S20). And, on the eve of what turned out to be a hugely successful tour of Australia, England batsman Kevin Pietersen said: ‘We’ve got to be mentally tougher’ (as cited in Booth, 2010: 23).

Claire Taylor, captain of the all-conquering England women’s cricket team said: ‘It took a while but my mental toughness was built on an understanding that I wasn’t the best player technically’ (as cited in McRae, 2010d: 6–7). Former Australian spin bowler Shane Warne described India’s talisman Sachin Tendulkar as ‘very tough mentally’ (Warne, 2009: 15). Upon acceptance of the captaincy of the Australian Test cricket team, the immensely successful Steve Waugh reflected in his autobiography that: ‘All that was required was the mental toughness to carry out my plan’ (Waugh, 2006: 52). And, in addition to the requisite physical fitness for long spells of bowling, also needed ‘is the mental toughness to be able to bowl your 24th over of the day as hard and as optimistically as your first’ (S. Hughes, 2010c: S15).

Reflecting upon his Olympic gold medal-winning performance in Beijing, British yachtsman Ben Ainslie spoke reverentially of other high-achieving athletes: ‘The mental toughness of those guys, especially [Michael] Schumacher, was amazing’ (as cited in Snow, 2008: 32). Admitting the need for urgent psychological repair following a disastrous semi-final performance in the winter Olympics in Vancouver, British speed-skating coach Nicky Gooch said: ‘It takes a lot of mental toughness to come back and that’s what we’re going to work on now’ (as cited in Hart, 2010a: S17). Of getting through to the third round of the Wimbledon tennis championships for the first time in seven attempts, Australian player Samantha Stosur reflected: ‘I think my mental toughness wavered in and out, it certainly wasn’t there all the time, but I got it back’ (as cited in P. Wilson, 2009). And ahead of the 2011 US Masters, British golfer Graeme McDowell said: ‘I have been blessed with a certain mental toughness which has stood me in good stead during my career’ (as cited in Donegan, 2011a: 7).

From rugby league, ahead of a Super League grand final victory, Leeds Rhinos forward Jamie Jones Buchanan attributed his team’s resurgence to ‘mental toughness and work ethic’ (as cited in Irvine, 2007b: 79). In praise of their opponent’s challenge after his side’s third consecutive Rugby League Challenge Cup triumph, St Helens full-back Paul Wellens said: ‘They gave us as tough a game as any we’ve had all season. The heat and intensity really took its toll in the second half. In the end our mental toughness got us through’ (as cited in Malin, 2008: 14). Even rugby league’s world No. 1 referee, Ashley Klein, attributed a large part of his success to mental toughness: ‘It is about being mentally tough. It is about being able to make a decision and forget about it and not letting external factors cloud your judgement’ (personal communication, June 24, 2008). And from golf, 2009 World Match Play champion Ross Fisher’s assessment: ‘In all, I think it was mental toughness that pulled me through’ (as cited in Dixon, 2009b: 79).

From rugby union: ‘mental toughness and unyielding self-belief in the tightest of corners are two of Jonny Wilkinson’s great attributes’ (Fitzgerald, 2011, p. 94). Speaking prior to his side’s surprise semi-final victory over hosts France in the 2007 Rugby World Cup, England captain Phil Vickery acknowledged: ‘We know it will be tough, but I feel we have the players not just with the skills but with the mental toughness’ (as cited in Slot, 2007a: 120), adding that: ‘This is a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity. It’s mental toughness we need now, not game plans galore. It’s about physicality, about...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• List of figures
• List of tables
• The Mental Toughness Code
• Preface and acknowledgements
• 1. Introducing mental toughness
• 2. Characterising mental toughness
• 3. Conceptualising mental toughness
• 4. Measuring mental toughness
• 5. Developing and maintaining mental toughness
• 6. Concluding mental toughness
• Appendix A : Measuring mental toughness Construct validation of the alternative Psychological Performance Inventory (PPI-A) and the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ)
• Appendix B : Resisting stress in sports officiating The moderating role of positive psychology The moderating role of positive psychology
• Notes
• References
• Index