Primary Education: The Key Concepts

Denis Hayes

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2006
• ISBN:
  9781134256792
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Education General

Presenting a balance of theoretical insight and practical advice, thistextis a clear and accessible guide to the key issues relating to primary education. Alphabetically arranged and fully cross-referenced to ensure ease of use, entries include both curriculum specific terms, as well as those that are more generic, such as:

• assessment
• objectives
• coping strategies
• differentiation
• behaviour
• special needs
• time management.

Written by an experienced teacher and lecturer, this is a concise yet comprehensive text that takes into account the everyday realities of teaching. Readable and user-friendly, it is a first-class resource for the primary practitioner at all levels.

PUPIL LEARNING

Human learning is highly complex and not fully understood. Learning comes in a variety of forms, sometimes involving the intellect, sometimes the emotions, and sometimes both. Far from being a smooth and continuous process, it is a difficult concept to define; nevertheless, there is general agreement that the process benefits from well-informed and capable teaching. One explanation about learning that receives support from medical evidence is that different types of learning are associated with the right and left parts of the brain. The left part deals principally with language acquisition, sequences, analysis and number; it works to process information and responds best to structured and sequenced learning. The right part of the brain interprets images, looks for patterns, creates metaphors and strives to synthesise and consolidate information. Interplay between the two parts of the brain appears to be necessary for the development of deep understanding, creative expression and problem solving.

The education psychologist Jerome Bruner proposed three ways in which children learn: namely, through enactive, iconic and symbolic stages. The enactive stage is characterised by an active engagement in doing things. The iconic stage is characterised by children’s use of images and pictures. The symbolic stage is one in which children can reason and think abstractly. Even in a single lesson it is sometimes necessary for children to pass through the enactive stage to explore a phenomenon before they can cope with the iconic or enactive stages. For instance, a class of 8-year-olds may require an opportunity to explore randomly the relationship between a series of numbers prior to being taught the mathematical rule that applies. Similarly, 10- and 11-year-olds may benefit from being given time to create sounds using a variety of musical instruments before receiving specific instruction. Active engagement assists children in their search for meaning, especially in understanding the meanings behind the symbols they later employ in their work, such as map symbols, mathematical nomenclature and figures of speech. Teachers have to decide how long to allow pupils to employ enactive (exploratory) and iconic (visual representations) strategies before expecting them to engage with an abstract task (without the support of learning aids).

Pupil learning that consists of memory without understanding has limited value. For example, children might be systematically taught to read words correctly, recite multiplication tables or chant a religious creed, but unless they grasp their meaning and significance the depth of learning remains shallow. Learning that is purely functional, such as knowing how to subtract two numbers, has limited usefulness unless it can be employed in a genuine life situation (such as shopping). Learning can also be experiential, such as exploring a woodland copse and absorbing its sights, scents and sounds. Some forms of pupil learning relate to the acquisition of practical skills, such as the correct use of equipment, utilising technology or accessing resource books. Other types of learning involve understanding procedures and require practice in following a sequence, such as manipulating computer software. Yet other forms of learning relate to problem solving, such as in design and technology, that requires time for ideas to be explored and practically put to use.

Children learn best when they are given opportunity to use a range of tactile senses, visual stimuli, careful listening, enquiry-based activities, conversation and paper and pencil exercises, supported by teacher explanation and reinforced through individual or group activities. Innovative and imaginative learners learn particularly effectively when they have the opportunity to use the full range of their senses and ask questions about why things happen. Learners that are more analytical tend to process information by studying a range of possibilities closely, thinking deeply and reflecting on the issues involved, before developing their own ideas and comparing them with what they observe happening. Pragmatic learners first speculate and make suggestions before finding out if their ideas work in practice, then adjust their ideas accordingly. Dynamic learners learn best when they have a chance to experiment with ways in which they can use their present level of information and surmise about other possibilities. Teachers have to take account of these different learning preferences when they plan lessons, such that there is sufficient freedom to satisfy the innovative pupil, sufficient intellectual challenge to satisfy the analytical pupil, sufficient opportunity for practice to satisfy the pragmatic pupil and sufficient investigation to satisfy the inquisitive pupil. Teachers also have to take account of the needs of children with special educational needs (SEN) and those for whom English is not the primary tongue.

Whatever teaching approach is employed by teachers, the most productive learning consists of absorbing facts, understanding principles and being able to use knowledge in a practical context. All children need to be given the opportunity to transfer what they have learned to new situations; this is often the acid test for whether or not deep learning has been achieved. Even if all the group or class appear to have grasped the principles and ideas, some children will retain what they have learned; others will require regular reminding and updating. However, the more that children can see the relevance and usefulness of their learning, the more likely it is that they will engage enthusiastically with the lesson content and retain what they need to know.

An important element of a teacher’s role is to ascertain the extent and thoroughness of children’s learning. The influential Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) maintained that a child follows the adult’s example and, after initially receiving a lot of help, advice and support, gradually develops an ability to do the task or activity without help or assistance (e.g. Vygotsky 1978). His most famous work, Thought and Language, published shortly after his death, developed for the first time a theory of language development that described the development of language and logical thinking in young children in the course of their interactions with adults and the world around them; one of his tenets is that thought and language is inextricably linked. Vygotsky famously referred to the difference between what children can achieve with help from a more knowledgeable teacher (adult or child) and what they can do without guidance as the ‘zone of proximal development’ (ZPD). The active intervention and support of adults in children’s learning as they try to narrow the ZPD is equivalent to scaffolding placed around a house as it is constructed. As a child grasps the concept and gains the necessary understanding, the amount of scaffolding can be reduced. Once the child is in a position to progress independently the scaffolding is removed completely. Consequently, it is vital that teachers are aware of children’s existing knowledge and understanding and able to identify their limitations. Teachers gain this information when they get alongside children, converse with them, ask questions, allow them to respond, offer advice and explanation, and discuss the next steps in the learning process.

Pupils learn more productively when teachers adopt a positive attitude towards them and acknowledge that in searching for creative solutions there will be setbacks and need to be times of consolidation through repeated practice. All children benefit from being given an opportunity to discuss what they are doing and where it fits into their present understanding, as regardless of how carefully presented and interesting teachers make the lesson material, little learning of note takes place unless pupils engage mentally with the subject matter and make sense of things for themselves. Pupils will often complete their work simply because they are given it to do by a teacher; but the mere completion of tasks to occupy the space of a lesson does not ensure thorough learning has occurred.

Effective learning is also influenced by motivation and self-image. Some children are capable of finishing work and gaining personal satisfaction from it, regardless of the tick or comment at the bottom of the page; the majority, however, are strongly influenced by adult approval and thrive on praise. Learning is enhanced when children work cooperatively and show a willingness to persevere and concentrate. The prevailing norms and expectations of the school and classroom are significant in promoting or inhibiting effective learning.

Not all learning leads to academic outcomes. Social learning is essential if children are to understand the significance and application of empathy, sympathy and the courage of their convictions. Both as part of the formal citizenship curriculum and informally through regular interaction, teachers encourage pupil collaboration and help children to learn a variety of strategies that can be applied to interpersonal relationships and other social situations.

Further reading

Bentham, S. (2004) ‘Learning and teaching styles’, in E.C.Wragg (ed.) Teaching and Learning, pp. 72–86, London: Routledge.

General Teaching Council for England (2003) Social interaction as a means of constructing learning: The impact of Lev Vygotsky’s ideas on teaching and learning. On-line. Available: http://www.gtce.org.uk/research/vygotskyhome. asp (accessed April 2005).

Heylighen, F. (1993) ‘Epistemology: introduction’, in F.Heylighen, C. Joslyn and V.Turchin (eds) Principia Cybernetica Web (Principia Cybernetica, Brussels). On-line. Available: http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ REFERPCP.html (accessed May 2005).

Howe, M.J.A. (1999) A Teacher’s Guide to the Psychology of Learning, 2nd edn, Oxford: Blackwell.

MacGilchrist, B. (2003) ‘Primary learners of the future’, Education 3–13, 31, 3, pp. 58–65.

Smith, A. (1996) Accelerated Learning in the Classroom, Stafford: Network Educational Press.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1978) Mind in Society: The development of higher psychological processes, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wallace, B. (2002) ‘Don’t work harder, work smarter’, in B.Wallace and R. Bentley (eds) Teaching Thinking Skills Across the Middle Years, pp. 1–24, London: David Fulton/National Association for Able Children in Education.

PUPIL MOTIVATION

Children are not born with a particular view of themselves or their level of self-worth; it is something that they develop over the years, shaped through their relationships with family and friends and their wider social experiences. Although teachers cannot alter the way that children in their class have been or are treated by adults outside school, they make a significant contribution to their well-being by concentrating their efforts in six areas. First, finding out what children already know and understand. This process necessitates talking to the children, listening to what they say checking previous school records, and observing how they approach tasks and use their existing knowledge and understanding. Second, modelling a positive attitude towards learning by celebrating success, commiserating with failure, being enthusiastic about discovering new facts, specifying alternatives, and offering help and guidance whenever possible. Third, giving close personal attention to children who are struggling, restless or bored, remembering that most disaffection is caused by the perceived irrelevance of the work or fear of failure. Fourth, involving children in learning by discussing the lesson purpose, establishing manageable learning targets and inviting them to comment on the quality of their work and effort. Fifth, acknowledging pupils’ points of view and feelings. Finally, emphasising that success is attainable and worth cherishing.

Although primary-aged children generally respond well to the enticement of external rewards (extrinsic motivation) teachers have to maintain a balance between these incentives and a child’s inner desire to do well (intrinsic motivation). It is commonly the case that pupils make an instinctive assessment early in the lesson about whether the content is interesting and respond accordingly. Although most children comply with the teacher’s instructions without offering outward dissent, the prevalence of mundane tasks and activities limits their desire to strive for success. Effective teachers do not merely pass on information to their pupils, however skilfully, but try to instil a thirst for learning in them by making the lesson content appealing.

Studies suggest that the extent of children’s satisfaction with their education experience decreases with age and drops considerably when they reach secondary school. Thus, a large majority of primary pupils think that school is a positive experience; this contrasts with about one-quarter in secondary schools who feel similarly enthusiastic. When measuring pupils’ views about the relevance of what they learn and retain while in school, the motivation gap between the primary and secondary phases is even more pronounced. As pupils who retain a sense of curiosity and are at ease about their lives in school are more likely to be strongly motivated, teachers and assistants have a significant responsibility to create a dynamic learning environment in which children can prosper and enjoy what they are doing. In top-performing primary schools there is a serious effort to achieve academic success without sacrificing an investigative spirit and spontaneity.

A number of pupils need to be given a stronger sense of their own worth, as some children view themselves as powerless and gradually adopt an attitude of helplessness. Adults in school help such children to gain a stronger sense of self-worth and empowerment by giving them opportunities to assume positions of trust and responsibility. Motivation is not only important for academic work but also in preparing children to cope with the demands of life when they move on from primary school.

Further reading

Cullingford, C. (2002) The Best Years of their Lives? Pupils’ Experiences of School, London: Kogan Page.

Hayes, D. (2003) A Student Teacher’s Guide to Primary School Placement, London: RoutledgeFalmer.

Woods, P. (1990) The Happiest Days? London: Falmer, introduction and chapter 1.

QUESTIONING

The use of questioning in teaching as a means of enhancing children’s learning is widely used by teachers in whole-class and large group situations. Questioning serves five broad purposes. First, it offers teachers an opportunity to engage directly with pupils and establish a positive rapport with them. Second, it stimulates pupils to think hard by posing a variety of questions that elicit considered responses from them. Third, on the basis of their answers it gives teachers the opportunity to assess the depth of understanding possessed by pupils. Fourth, it helps children to learn from others as they listen to what is said and adjust or evaluate their own understanding accordingly. Fifth, it allows teachers to identify areas of pupil misunderstanding for clarification or remedial action. Questioning also has the potential to serve wider purposes. The effective use of questions encourages children to ponder and reflect on issues and problems as a means of aiding their conceptual development, opening up fresh areas of the topic for consideration and thereby stimulating pupil initiative, creativity and innovation.

Questions can be of low cognitive level designed to funnel pupils’ responses towards the desired answer rather than promoting higher levels of interaction and cognitive engagement. Teachers sometimes ‘shoot’ a question from pupil to pupil until a child answers correctly, but many children need to consider their answers and time has to be allowed for the mental processing to take place, which in practice necessitates short pauses. The wait time increases as pupils grapple with ‘higher-order’ questions that make children think more deeply and consider carefully what they say.

Questions that are principally intended to involve children in thelesson rather than extend learning are likely to be ones that every child can answer and have only one correct answer (a ‘closed’ question), sometimes asked orally and sometimes carried out through formal written means (a ‘test’). Questions that encourage children to think deeply tend to be open ended (i.e. inviting a variety of possible responses) and invite speculation, with supplementary questions to extend understanding. Questions to open fresh insights tend to be of the ‘just imagine if’ or ‘suppose that’ type, incorporating the use of allegory stories and notable events to fascinate the children. Questions to stimulate initiative invite pupils to solve problems in mathematics, and to design, construct and investigate in craft, science or design technology.

A learning climate of which questioning is an integral part allows children time to grapple with complex issues and to make genuine errors while they do so. To promote this kind of climate, the best teachers share their curiosities with pupils and reveal their doubts when they are unsure of an answer. They stimulate pupil interest by bringing into school unusual items and fascinating books that foster a sense of mystery and wonder, and encourage children to do the same. As a way to promote higher self-esteem and recognition, some teachers urge older primary children with knowledge about a hobby or pastime to act as experts among their peers by being in the ‘hot-seat’: talking to the class about their interest and handling questions that are put to them.

When dealing with a wide ability range, teachers find that it is preferable to start with more straightforward questions as a means of involving all pupils, rather than beginning with conceptually challenging ones that limit the number of children that can participate. However, questions that are too simple may be perceived by the children as babyish, create a lacklustre atmosphere and even invite ridicule. The excessive uses of factual (right or wrong) questions that end abruptly and have no connection with the work that follows are educationally limiting. Teachers of young children have to be cautious about using too many rhetorical questions, especially when dealing with young children, who tend to offer verbal responses when the teacher is merely thinking out loud.

As with all verbal exchanges, the use of inappropriate vocabulary—whether too advanced, too vague or too specialised—confuses and puzzles children. A common failing among inexperienced teachers is to express questions poorly; include subsidiary questions within the main question; and the use of double negatives. More experienced teachers avoid framing questions in a way that alarms pupils; instead, they employ a bright tone of voice and open body language to reassure the children.

Inexperienced teachers sometimes use a question-and-answer approach as a substitute for direct teaching when it would be better to tell the children rather than spend time asking large numbers of undemanding questions to tease out t...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Introduction
• Ability
• Accountability
• Achievement
• Activities and Tasks
• ADHD
• Anxiety
• Appraisal
• Assembly
• Assessment
• Assistants
• Behaviour
• Behaviourism
• Body Language
• Bullying
• Caring
• Celebration
• Childhood
• Circle Time
• Citizenship
• Class Size
• Code of Practice
• Collaboration
• Collegiality
• Communication
• Competition
• Concepts
• Constructivism
• Context
• Control
• Creativity
• Cross-Curricular Work (Curriculum Integration)
• Curriculum
• Decision Making
• Differentiation
• Dilemmas
• Early Years
• Educational Visits
• Effectiveness
• Emotion
• Encouragement
• Enjoyment
• Enquiry
• Equal Opportunities
• Expectations
• Extra-Curricular
• Feedback
• Friendship
• Giftedness and Talent
• Health and Safety
• Homework
• Humour
• Imagination
• Inclusion
• Induction
• Inspection
• Instruction
• Interaction
• Intervention
• Key Stages
• Knowledge
• Leadership
• Learning Climate
• Learning Objectives
• Legality
• Lessons
• Lesson Management
• Lesson Planning
• Lesson Review
• Literacy
• Memory
• Mistakes and Misconceptions
• Monitoring Progress
• Moral Development
• Motivation for Teaching
• Numeracy
• Nurturing
• Oracy
• Organising for Learning
• Parental Involvement
• Passion
• Phonics
• Play
• Professionalism
• Professional Development
• Punishment
• Pupil Learning
• Pupil Motivation
• Questioning
• Reading
• Recording
• Reflection
• Reporting
• Rewards
• Rite of Passsage
• Rules
• Self-Esteem
• Skills
• Special Educational Needs
• Steiner-Waldorf Schools
• Talk
• Target Setting
• Teacher Role
• Teaching Approach
• Testing
• Thinking
• Time Management
• Topic Work
• Values
• Web Sites