A Student's Guide to Studying Psychology

Thomas M. Heffernan

• Publisher: Psychology Press
• Year: 2005
• ISBN:
  9781135424145
• Edition: 3
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: History & Theory in Psychology
• Index: Psychology

Now in its third edition, this very popular guide to studying psychology remains an invaluable tool for students at both undergraduate and pre-degree level, along with those deciding whether to take psychology as an academic subject. Providing insights into the most critical aspects of studying psychology, A Student's Guide to Studying Psychology is distinguished from other texts by its easy to follow format and practical nature. Topics covered include: * perspectives within psychology
* making the most of seminars, tutorials and lectures
* how to write essays and empirical reports
* guidelines on exam preparation and technique
* information on careers in psychology and tips for applying for jobs, including how to write your own curriculum vitae. For this fully updated third edition, new advice is included on web-based research and referencing. Subject coverage is expanded to include contemporary research trends in cognitive neuroscience, evolutionary psychology and positive psychology. In addition, new material investigates postgraduate specialisms including neuropsychology, psychotherapy and sport psychology.

1
Introduction to psychology

This chapter defines psychology, considers the study of psychology as a scientific discipline, and introduces the reader to the major perspectives within psychology.

What is psychology?

To the layperson, the term “psychology” might mean something like “the study of people” or “the study of the mind”, both of which are correct but a little vague. A more formal definition of psychology would be the scientific study of human mental processes, motivatiom,and behaviour. Animal research is also conducted so that comparisons can be made between animal and human behaviour—from which many models of behaviour have been developed (Pinel,2003)3. The origins of psychology has been much debated over the years. One school of thought is that psychology really only began when the first experimental study in psychology was carried out (for example, Hermann Ebbinghaus’s experimental investigations into human memory in the late nineteenth century), whereas there are good arguments in support of the roots of psychological thought and inquiry dating back much further (see e.g., Eysenck,1998, chap. 1).

Early influences include those of the Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle during the fourth and fifth centuries BC, as well as experiments into psychophysics (the study of the relationship between mental and physical processes) carried out in Germany in the early to mid-nineteenth century. Hermann von Helmholtz’s physiological research on colour vision in the nineteenth century has contributed much to physiological psychology. Charles Darwin’s work on the origin of species and the work by Francis Galton on the study of individual differences and intelligence (both developed in the nineteenth century) firmly established the importance of biology to the study of humankind. Sigmund Freud’s work on the psychoanalytic approach to the study of human thought and behaviour (particularly in the current realms of abnormal psychology) in the late nineteenth to early twentieth century, and the growth in behaviourism during the early to mid part of the twentieth century, have all contributed to the development of psychology.

All of these influences, it could be argued, have made invaluable contributions to the scientific study of human mental processes, motivations, and behaviour— psychology. Amongst the other major influences of the twentieth century are Gestalt psychology and humanism. Gestalt psychology has as its focus the direct description of human conscious experience, and was pioneered in the early part of the twentieth century by Max Wertheimer,Kurt Koffka,and Wolfgang Kohler.Humanism focuses particularly on personal growth (self-actualisation), and was pioneered in the mid part of the twentieth century by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.Very recent influences include social constructionism,cross-cultural psychology, and feminist psychology (see Eysenck, 1998).

During its development, psychology has undergone a number of changes. One of these changes is a greater reliance on the scientific method. This means the use of scientific techniques, approaches, designs, and analyses, all of which allow the psychologist to study and interpret a range of human behaviour systematically, and predict or control it with some precision (Solso& Maclin,2002). The use of systematic study allows us to test long-held, often erroneous, beliefs about the nature of human beings. For example, during the latter half of the Middle Ages, abnormal behaviour was predominantly thought to be the result of possession by devils or evil spirits. Often, “treatments” involved torturous, exorcistic procedures such as flogging, starving, immersion in hot water, etc. (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2002, chap. 1). In current times, however, the recognition of psychological disturbances (and biological dysfunction) has led to more humane treatment of the mentally ill within society (see also Seligman,Walker, & Rosenhan, 2001).

Most psychologists might agree that all aspects of functioning should be considered in order to gain a fuller understanding of the human being. However, they will differ on what aspects they believe are of greatest importance. These differences reflect the variety of perspectives and methods adopted in psychology and the different lines of research being carried out by psychologists. The influences mentioned previously (e.g., philosophy, biology, physiology, the scientific method), are all evident in the modern-day perspectives within psychology. These major perspectives and methods include: psychoanalytic, biological, developmental, humanistic, behaviourist, cognitive, and social approaches to the study of human functioning. In practice, many psychologists do not adhere to just one perspective, but will take a somewhat eclectic approach.

Before considering some of the major perspectives and methods in psychology, it should be noted that, historically speaking, psychology stems from a variety of strands. The two major influences come from philosophy and the biological sciences, which has led to different “schools” of psychology being developed. In this sense a “school” refers to a group of individuals who hold common notions about the nature of human beings. These influences are still with us today in psychology and are represented on any undergraduate degree in psychology, as well as having a significant influence on specialisms in psychology.

Further reading: For some good reviews on the history of psychology see, for example, Herganhan(1992), Hothersall(1995), Malim,Birch, and Wadeley(1996), and Watson and Evans (1991).

Perspectives and methods in psychology

Psychology is ultimately the study of the person. Since there are many factors that work to “shape” each of us (e.g., genetics, learning processes, social influences, etc.), it is no surprise that psychology is a multi-perspective subject. Thus, when studying psychology at pre-degree and degree level, a number of perspectives or approaches are considered. For example, psychology can be looked at from a biological perspective, or from a combined approach (e.g., the study of psychological and social factors—a psychosocial approach). On the first year of a psychology course there is a wide coverage of the different perspectives, theories, and methods that have evolved within the discipline of psychology. The purpose of the rest of this chapter is to introduce you to the major topics encountered when studying psychology.

The psychoanalytic perspective

The psychoanalytic (also referred to as psychodynamic) approach is one of the oldest of the psychological perspectives. The onset of this approach can be traced as far back as 100 years ago when Sigmund Freud began his work. Indeed, Freud (1856–1939) is often referred to as the “father” of the psychoanalytic approach. According to this view, human behaviour is governed by impulses that lie buried in the unconscious part of the psyche (a Greek word meaning “soul”, currently used to refer to the “mind”). Freud believed that each of us experienced a series of psychosexual stages that would shape our adult personality. The behaviour we show to the world is like the tip of an iceberg, beneath which are the vast realms of the unconscious. Freud developed a number of techniques for studying the patients who came to him for treatment for a range of disorders (Herganhan,1992; Smith, Nolen-Hoeksema,Fredrickson,& Loftus,2003).

Freud maintained that one’s personality is made up of three parts—the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is thought to be the seat of all our basic, innate, drives and impulses such as sexual and aggressive drives. The id, for Freud, was the most inaccessible and primitive part of the personality, from which emanated such strong impulses that they could govern our overt behaviour. The second part of one’s personality is the ego. According to Freud, this part of the personality acts to regulate the impulses emanating from the id and transforms them into a more socially acceptable form. The ego, therefore, acts to mediate between the drives of the id and the constraints of the outside world. The id operates on a “pleasure principle” because it seeks immediate gratification of the drives and impulses emanating from it. The ego operates on a “reality principle” because it transforms the basic drives of the id into a socially acceptable form. The final part of the personality is the superego. The superego develops within the first 5 years of life and, according to Freud, is the result of the child’s incorporation of parental and social moral standards. The superego is seen as a “conscience mechanism”, which works with the ego in order to mediate between the strong impulses of the id and to conform to what the external world expects of us. In this way, the personality is thought to be in a constant state of struggle as these individual components interact to deal with basic innate drives and outside forces. The system is said to be a dynamic one (see Freud, 1927/1974).

In addition to the notion of a three-part personality, Freud believed that child development was a strong indicator of the type of personality characteristics a person would show as an adult. According to this aspect of Freudian theory, a person progresses through five basic stages in their psychosexual development, each of which brings with it a potentially significant change in the person’s psychological make-up. (Psychosexual relates to psychological development that is strongly linked with sexual experiences.) The first three stages are experienced within the first 6 years of life; the final two occur between the age of 6 years and adulthood. A summary of these stages are: the oral stage (from birth to about 1 year); the anal stage (from 1 to 3 years of age); the phallic stage (with a major development between 5 and 6 years); the latency stage (from about 6 to 12 years of age); and the genital stage (from 12 years to adulthood).

Further reading: For further consideration of these development stages see Alloy, Acocella,and Bootzin(1998), Gleitman,Fridlund,and Reisberg(2003), and Sternberg (1998).

Freud further maintained that if an individual progressed through these stages successfully then he or she would develop an adult personality that was, relatively speaking, problem-free (i.e., a person would not demonstrate maladaptive thought and behaviour patterns). However, if a particular stage was not “negotiated” successfully, then that person would develop what Freud referred to as a fixation. A fixation has been likened to having personality characteristics that are “frozen” in time, resulting in the manifestation of immature thinking and behaviour dependent on where the fixation lies. In some cases fixations can lead to various forms of neuroses (Alloy et al., 1998). So think carefully, if you are the type of person who is a chain-smoker, who likes chattering constantly, and/or who eats excessively, because, according to Freudian theory, you might well be the victim of a fixation at the oral stage of your psychosexual development. (See also Eysenck,1994; Smith et al, 2003.)

Freud’s writings have undoubtedly had a significant influence on theory and application in the field of psychology, as well as on other fields such as psychiatry. A number of post-Freudian theories and techniques have emerged, many of which owe a great debt to Freud’s work (see Gleitman et al, 2003; Hayes, 1994; Mischel,1999; Smith et al., 2003). Freudian theory is, like all theories, open to criticism (Fisher & Greenberg, 1977). For example, the theory has proved difficult to test under experimental conditions. Indeed, Freud’s own writings offer little in the way of “hard data” that can be subjected to rigorous statistical analysis. There is little doubt that, in a time when discussion about sexuality was regarded as something of a taboo, Freud was unreserved in his explorations of the subject. Since Freud expounded his theory, many “post-Freudians” have written about the development of human personality, building on Freud’s ideas and developing theories of their own. These include Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Karen Horney,to name but a few (see Brown, 1977; Fransella,1981). In addition, a whole branch of psychoanalytic treatment has sprung up as a direct result of Freud’s work. Freudian theory has also had an influence on the contemporary psychotherapies presently used in the clinical field (see Davison, Neale & Kring,2003).

The biological perspective

Charles Darwin’s The Origin of Species (1859) has been heralded as one of the most significant influences on the way in which we viewed human nature. Prior to Darwin, thought was guided by the principle that human beings were unique in the sense that they were the only species that possessed a “soul”. Therefore, humans were seen as being fundamentally different from other species. Darwin was a biologist who spent many years making comparisons between different species of animals (including humans). He suggested that humans had evolved out of other species, and should therefore be seen as part of the wider animal kingdom.

Darwin’s work had a number of implications for the development of a biological perspective in psychology. Eysenck (1994) outlines four such implications. Each of these implications is briefly indicated here, along with an example of a current research focus that has directly influenced contemporary theory, research, and application:

1. The notion that we should look at the interface between biological factors and psychological factors. An example of what influence this has had comes from the work currently being undertaken to discover the biological foundations of psychopathological disorders, for example, current research into the potential causes of schizophrenia, as well as treatments that have been developed (see Seligman et al, 2001; Sue et al, 2002).
2. The realisation that the study of animals can further our understanding of human functioning. For example, research into basic animal nervous systems, such as that of the Aplysia (a simple marine organism), has contributed to the development of a “model” of basic memory systems in humans (Pinel, 2003).
3. Darwin reinforced the view that heredity played an important role in the development of a particular species. Again, the genetic foundations of “normal” functions in humans, as well as in psychopathological conditions, are all too evident in contemporary psychology (see, e.g., Gleitman et al., 2003).
4. Darwin’s observations on the variation between individual members of a given species and evolutionary selectivity has influenced our thinking on personality, intelligence, and individual differences in psychology (see, e.g., Smith et al., 2003; Sternberg , 1998).

Currently, the biological perspective is an attempt to understand emotions, thoughts, and behaviour in terms of the physical processes taking place in the body (Smith, 1993). Biological psychologists have developed a good understanding of how our nervous system operates; the development of the brain and how its various sites govern different functions; and how artificial stimulants can impact on our physiology and, in turn, on our behaviour. Indeed, they have even begun to unravel the mysteries of the very building blocks of humankind—genetics. (See Carlson ,2004; Eysenck,1994; Kimble& Colman, 1994; Pinel ,2003; Smith, 1993; Smith et al , 2003.)

One example of the impact that a biological approach has had on the study of humans comes from work on a biomedical model of abnormality. Abnormality is where a person is judged to be psychologically disturbed in terms of her or his personality and/or behaviour (Seligman et al., 2001, chap. 1). Normally, a clinical diagnosis of abnormality would only be made using a set of selected criteria and a range of diagnostic tools. The biomedical approach assumes that abnormality is an illness that exists within the body, as opposed, for example, to the idea that society is the cause of abnormality. This approach is founded on three basic assumptions:

• that the various manifestations of the abnormality—the symptoms—can be grouped together to form a syndrome;
• that once the syndrome has been identified the physical aetiology or cause can be identified and located within the individual’s body;
• that a treatment, biological in nature, can be administered to alleviate the abnormality (see, e.g., Seligman et al., 2001; Sue et al., 2002).

The biomedical approach has had a significant influence on theory and application with regard to conditions such as anxiety neurosis, depression, and schizophrenia (Davison et al., 2003; Sue et al., 2002).

Another example, that has emerged from this Darwinian approach (more specifically from Darwin’s theory of evolution), is that of evolutionary psychology—a branch of psychology that views social behaviour (such as interpersonal relationships, work, and so on) as being determined, at least in part, by biological factors and the goal of gene survival (Eysenck , 1998). This area is given further consideration towards the end of this chapter under the section “twenty-first century psychology”.

Although the biomedical model has proved a useful framework from which many aspects of human functioning are studied, including certain cases of abnormal behaviour (such as the chemical imbalance implicated in schizophrenia), it does have its weaknesses. For example, behavioural and cognitive factors (such as direct negative experience and irrational thoughts) can lead to psychopathology, without any clear biological determinant (Davison et al., 2003; Marks, 1969). Other approaches, such as the psychophysiological approach (the interface between psychology and physiological states) have proved useful as an explanation for a range of conditions, including everyday complaints such as migraine headaches (Sue et al., 2002).

Developmental psychology

Developmental psychology is defined as the scientific study of change in humans. Thus, within developmental psychology, a student will study how humans develop and why these changes occur. This appro...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• Preface to the third edition
• 1: Introduction to psychology
• 2: A study guide tolectures,seminars and tutorials
• 3: A guide to essaywritingand referencing
• 4: A guide to research methods
• 5: Ethics in research
• 6: Empirical research report writing
• 7: A guide to preparing for examinations
• 8: After the degree: Opportunities for a psychology graduate
• References