Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy

Oliver Leaman

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2002
• ISBN:
  9781134689040
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Filosofia
• Subtopic: Storia e teoria della filosofia

Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy provides an extensive glossary of the main terms and concepts used in Eastern philosophy. The book includes definitions of philosophical ideas linked to the national traditions of:
* Persia
* India
* Islamic world
* China
* Japan
* Tibet
including concepts from:
* Zoroastrianism
* Hinduism
* Sufism
* Islam
* Confucianism
* Shintoism
* Taoism
* Buddhism
Each entry includes a guide for further reading and critical analysis, and is cross-referenced with associated concepts and is in easy-to-use A-Z format.

KEY CONCEPTS

A

Abhidhamma see Abhidharma Buddhism

Abhidharma Buddhism

action

active intellect

adhyasa see avidya

Advaita

aesthetics

afterlife and rebirth

ahimsa

Ahriman, see Ahura Mazda

Ahura Mazda

ajiva see cosmology

Ajivikas see asceticism, fatalism

alayavijnana see consciousness, tathagatagarbha, Yogachara

ambiguity

Amida see enlightenment, nembutsu, Pure Land

Analects see Confucianism

analysis

anatman see anatta

anatta

Angra Mainyu see death, evil

anicca

animals

anumana see inference

al-Áaql see law

al-Áaql al-faÁÁl see active intellect

arahat

arhat see arahat

ariya saca see Four Noble Truths

artha

arya satya see Four Noble Truths

asceticism

AshÁariyya and MuÁtazila

atman

atomism

atta see atman

avatara

avidya

avija see avidya

awareness see knowledge

B

badha

bardo

being

benevolence see love

Bhagavad Gita

bhakti

bhakti yoga see yoga

bheda see Dvaita

bi-la kayfa see Ash‘ariyya

bodhi

bodhichitta

bodhidruma see bodhi

bodhisatta see bodhisattva

bodhisattva

Book of Changes

brahman

Brahmanas see brahman

Brahmasutras see brahman

Buddha

buddha nature

buddhata

buddhi see yoga

bushido see death

C

caste

causation

chan see zen

Chandogya Upanishad see causation

change see causation

cheng see Book of Changes, enlightenment, human nature

Chinese philosophy

chitta see mind

Chittamatra see Yogachara

communism

compassion see karuna

conditioned arising see dependent origination

Confucianism

consciousness

cosmology

creation

D

dahr see time

Daoism

Dao de jing

Dao zue see Neoconfucianism

darshana

de

death

democracy

dependent origination

desire see love

destiny see karma

dhamma see dharma

dharma

dhawq see Sufism

dhikr see Sufism

dhyana see zen

dravya see Vishishtadvaita

duhkha see dukkha

dukkha

Dvaita

dzogchen see Tibetan philosophy

E

education

emptiness

enlightenment

eternity

ethics

evil

existence

F

fa

faith

falasifa see God, Islamic philosophy

falsafa see Islamic philosophy

fatalism

fo shing see buddha nature

Four Holy Truths see Four Noble Truths

Four Noble Truths

friendship

fundamentalism

G

God

good see ethics, evil

guna see Dvaita, prakriti

guru

H

hadith

harmony

hatha yoga

heaven see human nature, tian

himsa see asceticism

Hinayana

hoben see skilful means

hongaku see Tendai

hua yan see Chinese philosophy, Korean philosophy

human nature

humanism

hwadu see Korean philosophy

I

i see humanism

I Ching see Book of Changes

ignorance

ijmaÁseelaw

Ikhwan al-Safa

illuminationist philosophy

Áilm al-huduri see illuminationist philosophy

imagination

imam see fundamentalism

immortality see afterlife

indeterminacy of meaning see ambiguity

Indian philosophy

inference

isha see God

ishraq see illuminationist philosophy

ishvara see God, jiva

Islamic philosophy

J

jada see brahman

jahaliyya see fundamentalism

Jain philosophy

Japanese philosophy

jian see love

jianai see love, Mohism

jihad see violence

jina see Jain philosophy

jing see human nature

jiu see time

jiva

jivanmukti

jivatman see jiva

jnana see knowledge

jnana yoga

ju see education

jue see education

justice

K

kalam see Islamic philosophy

kalpana see imagination

kamma see karma

karma

karma yoga

karuna

khilafa see fundamentalism

knowledge

koan

kongan see koan, Korean philosophy

Korean philosophy

kyong see human nature

L

language

law

Legalism

li

Li xue see Neoconfucianism

liberation

lita

logic

Lokayata see consciousness, materialism

Lotus Sutra see Chinese and Japanese philosophy, faith, harmony,

skilful means

love

M

Madhyamaka/Madhyamika

mahamudra see Tibetan philosophy

Mahayana

manas see mind

mappo see time

materialism

maya

meditation

Mimamsa

mind

ming jiao see Neodaoism, rectification of names

Mohism

moksha

momentariness

mu see emptiness

Mu‘tazila see Ash‘ariyya and Mu‘tazila

N

nafs see mind

nahda see enlightenment

Naiyayikas see Nyaya-Vaisheshika

nana see jnana yoga, knowledge

nembutsu

Neoconfucianism

Neodaoism

nibbana

Nichiren Buddhism see faith

nirguna brahman see lila

nirvana see nibbana

niyati see fatalism

noesis see knowledge, prajna

non-violence see ahimsa

nothingness see emptiness

nous poetikos see active intellect

Nyaya-Vaisheshika

nyorizo see tathagatagarbha

O

Ohrmazd see evil

orientalism

P

panna see prajna

paradox see koan, logic

perception see inference, knowledge, prajna

personality

prajna

prajnaparamita

prakriti

prama see knowledge

pramana see knowledge

pratityasamutpada see fatalism

pudgala see personality

Pure Land

purusha

Purva Mimamsa see Mimamsa

Q

qi

R

rajas see Dvaita, prakriti, yoga

rectification of names

ren

ru lai zang see tathagatagarbha

S

saguna brahman see lila

samadhi see meditation, prajna

samatha see meditation

samsara

samsari see Jain philosophy

Sankhya

sarupya see knowledge

Sarvastivada

sattva see Dvaita, prakriti, yoga

shariÁa see law

shaykh see guru, Sufism

sheng see causation

shi see Legalism

ShiÁa, ShiÁism

shiÁat allah see Shi‘ism

shila see prajna

Shingon Buddhism

shu see Legalism

shunya see emptiness, Madhyamaka

shunyata see emptiness

Shunyatavada see emptiness, Madhyamaka, Mahayana

shura see democracy

skandhas see personality

skilful means

song see human nature

suchness see tathagata

suf see Sufism

Sufism

Sunna, Sunni Islam

susupti see atman

svadharma see dharma

T

tamas see Dvaita, prakriti, yoga

tanha see Four Noble Truths

tantra

Taoism see Daoism

Tao Te Ching see Dao De Jing

tasauwur see knowledge, logic

tasdiq see logic

tat tvam asi see Vedanta

tathagata

tathagatagarbha

tathata see tathagatagarbha

tawhid see Sufism

Tendai

Theravada Buddhism

tian

tianli see human nature

tian tai see Chinese philosophy, emptiness, Korean philosophy,

Tendai

tianzi see Mohism

Tibetan philosophy

time

triaratna see ethics

trishna see Four Noble Truths

U

umma see violence

universals

Upanishads

upaya see skilful means

V

Vaisheshika

Veda

Vedanta

vikalpa see imagination

violence

vipissana see Madhyamaka, meditation

Vishishtadvaita

vyapti see logic

W

wei see Daoism

wei wu wei see Daoism

wu see Neodaoism, zen

wu nian see meditation

wu xin see meditation

wu yu see Neoconfucianism

X

xi see Daoism

xuan xue see Neodaoism

xue see enlightenment

Y

yana see skilful means

yi see Daoism, Mohism

Yi jing, see Book of Changes

Yin-Yang school

yoga

Yogachara

Z

zaman see time

zazen

zen

Zhou yi see Book of Changes

A

AbhidhammaÐ see Abhidharma Buddhism

Abhidharma Buddhism A doctrinal development and body of literature originating from 400–300 BCE in India (Abhidhamma in Pali), and meaning a systematic or supplementary arrangement of the dharmas, the basic concepts and teaching of Buddhism. It is regarded as the second of the three ‘baskets’ that make up the Tripitika, the body of Buddhist scriptures. It is particularly interesting for its treatment of the conditioned constituents of all existence, including mental as well as physical factors, inner consciousness as well as outer bodily existence. Real beings are dharmas, and everything that we experience as outside of us is just a series of instantaneous flashes of dharmas. Even what is commonly referred to as the soul is only a mass of momentary episodes, and we are trapped through our ignorance into acknowledging the reality of what really is not real at all. The momentary events do really take place, but we only notice them or are interested in them because of karma, our repertoire of desires and actions. Once we realize this, we appreciate that what we take to be the self has no more reality than what it takes to be outside itself, and once we eradicate the self from our thinking (or perhaps better, from thought) we no longer look on the world as a site for the satisfaction of our desires or a source of our frustrations. The point of studying the lists and types of dharmas is to be able to work out as systematically as possible how things really are, and so we may be enabled to transcend the karma involved in any kind of purposive activity. As a result we may be able to bring about the cessation of craving based on ignorance.

See also: atman

Further reading: Guenther 1976, Pruden 1988–90.

action The aphorism ‘it is easy to know but difficult to act’ has played an important role in Chinese philosophy. It suggests that it is far easier to have a theoretical understanding of something than to act upon it. The implication is that one does not really have knowledge unless one is able to apply it in practice. When Cheng Hao put the emphasis on the difficulty of acquiring knowledge in using the slogan, he sought to establish a form of subjective idealism, and the necessity to take steps to find out what is the case. Sun Yatsen criticized the slogan, arguing that it suggested a form of inaction and political pacifism. He turned it round, arguing that it is easy to act, but difficult to know. People have often acted without thinking clearly about what they were doing. Mao Zedong in his On Practice advocated the synthesis of theory and practice in revolutionary behaviour. This is actually the culmination of many centuries of speculation in Chinese thought, where materialists tended to stress action as the basis of morality, as opposed to idealists, who often saw thought as the basis of action. For Mao, social practice was not just the basis of human knowledge but also the criterion of that knowledge’s validity. There is a dialectical process according to which practice and knowledge both develop in tandem, and reach ever higher levels of human attainment. In Indian philosophy the relevant term here is karma, which is identified with movement. Action is a property of substance, a dynamic quality that links one substance with another. On the Nyaya-Vaisheshika system motion or movement is not an essential aspect of matter. Rather, it comes from outside it. There is often an argument that enlightenment is only accessible through certain kinds of action, the performance of duties, prayer and worship.

The Japanese philosopher Dogen discusses action in his account of dharma, the way of life appropriate to each individual. He pours scorn on the idea of the separation between practice and the attainment of what the practice is aiming at, between setting out to do something and actually achieving it. Enlightenment is then not dependent on practice, nor is awakening based on action. To have a buddha nature is to be a Buddha, and one cannot be a Buddha without having a buddha nature. Dogen represents this relationship as dynamic, and criticized the idea that one could just awaken as Buddha. The identity of action and the end of the action is a crucial aspect of zen thought. Of course, action is only successfully linked with the acquisition of the buddha nature if it is carried out perfectly and with the absence of intention, but once it is performed in the correct way, the result is inevitable. Action and the goal of action are just one thing really.

Islamic philosophy took over a controversy that originated in theology and considered whether we are free to carry out our own actions, or whether what we call our actions are just reflections of what God does. Many thinkers influenced by AshÁarism argued that only God really acts, so that what we do is only possible in achieving certain ends because God has brought those ends about, and has also allowed us to think that the world is an orderly place in which we have some impact. Al-Ghazali often produced this sort of view, and he suggested that only acceptance of such a thoroughgoing occasionalism gives appropriate status to God’s power as compared with our inability to do things without his assistance. The Peripatetic thinkers like ibn Rushd argued by contrast that unless we can really act we can form no view of the world as an environment in which there are stable and independently existing entities. Moreover, if what makes an action feasible is God bringing it about in every case, this makes the addition of God’s agency empty, since we merely redescribe our ordinary actions in every case as presupposing God’s activity.

See: ethics, materialism

Further reading: Abe 1992, Cheng 1989, Leaman 1985, 1997, Mao 1961, Schram 1989.

active intellect In Islamic philosophy this is a crucial concept, which is sometimes translated also as the agent intellect. In Arabic al-Áaqlal-faÁÁal and in Greek nous poetikos, this expression comes indirectly from Aristotle. The active intellect is often described as a transcendent immaterial entity equivalent to the sphere of the moon which acts as an intermediary between the divine mind and the human intellect. Once the latter has achieved a state of relative perfection by becoming the acquired intellect, the state of understanding the universal and abstract principles behind reality, it receives from the active intellect an emanation from heaven. The active intellect makes the acquired intellect possible, by transmitting from the transcendental world the power that manages to link it with the sublunary world. The active intellect represents the highest level of thought which we human beings can attain, and it reflects the necessity of something outside of us to move our capacity to think into alignment with transcendental reality.

Further reading: Leaman 1985, 1997.

adhyasa superimposition or the attribution of incorrect features to something that is experienced—see avidya

Advaita A school of Vedanta which literally means ‘not two’ or ‘not dual’, and whose major thinker was Shankara. The group of texts discussed in most detail is the Upanishads, and the varied ways in which that text deals with the links between brahman and the individual soul, and the former’s links with the universe. The term ‘non-dual’ is based on the idea that reality is one and not to be differentiated. This reality is brahman, divine power, knowledge of which leads to moksha or liberation. The crucial notion here is of a hierarchy of levels of viewing reality. The more crude level is that where we rely on the senses and which is only an aspect of a more basic reality, a reality that is more accessible to us through dreams, and most accessible through dreamless sleep and yogic trances. Brahman is available to a degree at each level of reality, but really it exists without any attributes at all. The common idea that we are separated from reality is due to human ignorance, maya or avidya, the illusions that persist as a result of our apparent individuality. One of the ways of cementing us in this ignorance is by trying to escape from it, since such effort means action, and action implies the acquisition of karmic traces (karma) and merely deepens bondage. One view offered by Advaita was that brahman is both identi...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Halftitle
• Title
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contents
• Introduction
• Notes on Text
• Key Thinkers and Dates
• List of Key Concepts
• References and Further Reading
• Index of Terms
• Index of Thinkers