PART ONE
The Intertextual Poetics of Scholarly Men: Affect in Arboreal Works by Spenser and Jonson
Both Edmund Spenser and Ben Jonson were scholars whose notions about manhood were shaped by the ChristianâHumanist tradition. These literary rivals present themselves as men worthy of the laurel crown by alluding to famous literary predecessors in Book I of The Faerie Queene (1590) and in Timber: Or Discoveries Upon Men and Matter (1623â35).1 I have placed key arboreal episodes in Book I of The Faerie Queene in dialogue with Timber because these parallel works deal with masculinity and emotion in relation to literary production. Not surprisingly, Spenser and Jonson were both accomplished writers who exhibit contrasting sensibilities as readers of prior texts. As a result, they allude to different kinds of literary authorities in The Faerie Queene and Timber. In Book I Spenser refers frequently to Ovid, Virgil, Chaucer, and Ariosto, whereas in Timber Jonson prefers the Roman writers Seneca, Cicero, and Quintilian and the Renaissance humanist Juan Luis Vives (1493â 1540). Interestingly, both Spenser and Jonson allude to these multiple predecessors in episodes or works related to trees, motifs that stand for the literary and cultural matter that has shaped and informed their poetics. Their contrasting intertextual methods of reading and responding to prior works reveal important differences in how these men of feeling imagine their roles as scholarly men.
As humanists, Spenser and Jonson read and digested a variety of classical, medieval, and Renaissance works. Spenser achieves fame as an epic poet by adding individuating Protestant nuances to the words and phrases he borrows from Ovid, Virgil, Chaucer, and Ariosto among others. His intertextual allusions to their works are multiple and varied in the episodes of the Wandering Wood; the grove of Fradubio, a man metamorphosed into a tree; and the wasteland of Despair, who hangs himself to no avail on âold stockes and stubs of treesâ (ix.34.1). I have selected these particular arboreal episodes because they are representative of how Spenser digests and refashions fragments of prior texts in Book I. As Jonson states in the Latin epigraph to Timber, the Greek term silva, meaning âwoodsâ or âforest,â functions as a metaphor for the âmultiplici materiaâ out of which a writer constructs his works as a craftsmen builds a house from timber.2 According to Jonson, a writer labors to shape this silva, referring to the âpieces of raw materialâ he collects from his predecessors, into a whole, new work of art.3 My focus on the arboreal dimension of works by Spenser and Jonson provides a useful way for grouping together sections of these writersâ varied and disparate texts that are most relevant to my larger discussion of masculinity and emotion. Whether intentionally or not, both Spenser and Jonson allude to numerous literary predecessors in these texts related to trees. Such allusive networks provide vital seed beds for comparing their intertextual poetics. Unlike Spenser, who defends passionate Protestantism in his innovative epic The Faerie Queene, Jonson advocates classical rigorism in his collection of fragments from Roman, stoical writers in Timber.
As we might expect, early modern conceptions of masculinityâwhether in reference to scholars, kings, chivalric knights, family men, or roguesâare far from heterogeneous and vary according to factors such as a manâs profession, social rank, and age. Spenser and Jonsonâs profoundly different masculine sensibilities as literary scholars were shaped in part by their contrasting views of the emotions. In general, Augustinian defenders of passionate Protestantism focused on the spiritual value of the emotions, whereas representatives of stoical classicism advocated indifference toward them. From the classical period through the Renaissance, Stoics emphasized the perfection of the rational faculties of the mind and the cultivation of apatheia, or indifference toward bodily impulses and affections.4 The stoical branch of humanism, which took hold around 1550 in Europe and England, continued to exert a profound influence on Jonsonâs Works published in 1616. Jonson praises the stoical ideal of rational self-sufficiency and distrusts the passions in Timber. G.W. Pigman III remarks upon Jonsonâs emphasis on restraining the emotion of grief in his elegies published in his Works by stating, âJonson is far from representative of the seventeenth century: his attitude towards mourning is a throwback to the 1550s.â5
In Book I of his epic The Faerie Queene first published in 1590, by contrast, Spenser exhibits remarkable tolerance for male and female expressions of emotions, including grief, sorrow, and joy. He represents male weeping and wailing as spiritually restorative. In this way he depicts in a positive light those means of expressing emotion that are traditionally associated with women in Western culture. The view of women as prone to emotional excess persists throughout early modern England. As Thomas Wright states in Passions of the Minde in Generall (1604), the passions of his female audience are âmost vehement and mutable (3). In âOn the Emotions, or Perturbations of the Mindâ (1658) Thomas Hobbes similarly remarks âthat those that weep the greatest amount and more frequently are those, such as women and children, who have the least hope in themselves and the most in friends.â6 Yet excessive displays of emotion are not necessarily limited to women and children in the early modern period. In the âBallad of St. George for Englandâ (1658â64) St George âbitterly did waile and wĂ©epâ in the dungeon.7 In this way he resembles Spenserâs Una, who begins to âwaile and weepâ when Redcrosse abandons her (I.ii.7.9). In Book I of The Faerie Queene Redcrosseâs sorrow for his sins ultimately leads to repentance, a fact that supports Wrightâs Augustinian position that the emotions are powerful and useful in a Christian context. As he comments, âsadness bringeth repentanceâ (17).
My comparison of Spenserâs poetics in Book I of The Faerie Queene with Jonsonâs in Timber: or, Discoveries upon Men and Matter highlights their vastly different perspectives on masculinity in relation to femininity as well as the emotions. One of the many factors that distinguishes Book I of The Faerie Queene from Timber is Spenserâs celebration of men who depend on women. Redcrosse receives hope of eternal salvation toward the end of Book I as a result of his reliance on Una in the Wandering Wood and the cave of Despair. In addition, the female figure of Mercy serves as his guide at the spiritually purifying House of Holiness. Likewise, Spenser depends on the support of Elizabeth I in order to receive the promise of the laurel crown. He dedicates The Faerie Queene to Gloriana, a mirror reflection of the Queen, and fittingly glorifies femininity in a number of cases throughout his epic. Jonson, who was writing during the reign of James I, attempts to distance or separate himself from what he perceives as the threat of femininity in Timber. He thereby epitomizes the anxiety of some early modern men toward what they fear is the âcontaminatingâ or âdebilitatingâ influence of women.8 In this way Spenser and Jonson provide a âdouble visionâ of how early modern writers conceived of masculinity, femininity, and the emotions.
Early modern, literary responses to the decorum for male expressions of emotion are widely ambiguous and tend to stress either the dignity of or dangerousness and inappropriateness of powerful displays of affect. Spenser, a Protestant writer emphasizing the need for grace and the Augustinian value of tears, fashions male figures whose demonstrations of emotion, ranging from sorrow for sin to heavenly joy, are spiritually liberating rather than weakening. He focuses on chivalric knights who are emotionally expressive as well as martially aggressive. Jonson, however, stresses the role of reason, rather than emotion in the classical education of scholarly men. He perceives the emotions as dangerous forces that Stoics such as himself and his literary followers need to combat and overcome. Nevertheless, Jonsonâs own anger over social inequalities fuels his critique of aristocratic versions of manhood in Timber. Moderate, timely expressions of emotion function as vital aspects of the professional identities for both these scholarly men.