There appeared in 1880 a book by William Hurrell Mallock with the intriguing title of Is Life Worth Living? This is not a treatise on suicide, but it is about a demise. Its concern, like that of much contemporary discourse, is with the waning of religious faith and the consequences for existence. Mallock identifies a widespread âcrisisâ, at the centre of which lie a ânegation of the supernaturalâ and a concomitant âintense self-consciousness ⌠on the part of man as to his own prospects and his own positionâ. The âold spontaneity of actionâ, rooted in the ideals of rewards in heaven and obedience to divine law, has given way to the cultivation of this-worldly knowledge and success, ânatural happinessâ, under the aegis of the âpositive schoolâ of scientific thought and progress.1 This is a restrained version of Carlyleâs strident lament for the âEverlasting Noâ of a universe become âdead, immeasurable Steam-engineâ, a âmachine ⌠go[ing] by the wheel-and-pinion âmotivesâ, self-interests, checksâ.2 It is also a theme at the heart of Dickensâs writing. The present study is, broadly speaking, an account of how this author reflects and responds to the unsettlement and stress of his era â his involvement in the question of, as Barry Qualls puts it, âthe way man might live adequately in a world whose only certainty was fluxâ.3 âAdequatelyâ, which Qualls emphasizes, is an important word: there is no magical or complete solution to the challenge.
In targeting the causes of nineteenth-century angst Mallockâs aim comes to rest on the deconstructive influence of philosophic âpositivismâ, which had its principal source in Ludwig Feuerbachâs Essence of Christianity, published in 1841 and translated by George Eliot in 1854, where belief in the Divine is construed as the adolescent phase of humankindâs development and Christian doctrines are interpreted fundamentally as projections of our own aspirations or wants, and where, above all, the orthodox credo of âGod is loveâ is displaced with the humanist principle of âLove is godâ.4 For Mallock, the spiritual losses of deconversion far outstripped any gains in benevolent sentiment or material welfare. Dickens, we shall find, has mixed feelings in such areas, and certainly to a large extent runs with the âReligion of Humanityâ that Is Life Worth Living? anathematizes. There is, however, a more immediately obvious and clear-cut difference between the two writers. Mallock addresses the problem of restoring stability and the quality of life amidst change and failing metaphysical assumptions by advocating a mass return to the Catholic Church, which he views as an organism capable of infinite adaptation and, in its emphasis on ritual and dogma, of supplying a refuge from self-consciousness itself. As is suggested by R.H. Huttonâs incredulous arraignment of this call in an otherwise enthusiastic review,5 the proposal seems just as improbable in its early context as it does now, in spite of John Henry Newman and the Oxford Movement. Dickens, on the other hand, is Protestant and in tune with the future, in that he centres the quest for order and value in individuals rather than in any overarching institution.
Of the works I have chosen for detailed discussion, two, David Copperfield and Great Expectations, are first-person narratives that recall, the second often very precisely, the autobiographies of Puritan tradition, with their stories of guilt and renovation, inner maturation, the search through memory for self-knowledge and unity of being. In A Christmas Carol the erstwhile conversion process and strategies of meditation are powerfully dramatized and adjusted to latter-day settings and needs. The theme persists in Our Mutual Friend in the narratives of John Harmonâs discovery of identity and the inward enlightenment of Bella Wilfer and Eugene Wrayburn. Characters in Dickens can bridge epochs, tracking, more or less firmly, the paths of John Bunyan and his pilgrims but having no Celestial City in view and in themselves confirming the investiture of what Philip Rieff, considering in the twentieth century the long march of secularization that he sees as first breaking the surface of history in the period of the French Revolution, has called modern âpsychological manâ, in whom âthe new centre, which can be held even as communities disintegrate, is the selfâ, existing where âthere is no longer an effective sense of communion, driving the individual out of himselfâ, having to manage his own âwell-beingâ and âpersonal capacityâ.6 Or, we should add, failing to manage that âwell-beingâ. It is important to note from the outset the dark side of the picture. The internal landscape can be as blighted as the outer. For every one who, like Scrooge or David, gets a better life, there is one who, like Pip, can only hang on desperately, and one who, like Bradley Headstone, goes under. In the arena of selving there are some wins, some draws, and some defeats.
Yet, that Dickens is a chronicler of existential struggle against a background of dissolution does not of course mean that he has no care for the relationship between self and society, or no interest in the latterâs re-formation. His characters do not simply express a solitary condition, they function, selectively, as models of how to conduct oneself and oneâs interaction with others, and how not to. Scrooge is a concentrated case in point. His transcending of egotism for a sense of community at the levels of personal relations, the family, the local group, and the larger stage constitutes a paradigm of good practice. As we shall see, this is one of the places where we are most strongly conscious of Dickens forging a Feuerbachian position, upvaluing the species-awareness and recognition of the interdependence of âIâ and âThouâ that arise from an anthropological creed. The novel, Carlyle proclaimed, should bring âdoctrineâ, âreproofâ, âedificationâ, âhealingâ, âguidanceâ.7 Dickens provides all these, and does so in a variety of ways of which the use of character-as-example is but one salient method. Another is what may be termed experiential reader engagement. This happens when we are invited to play out scenes in the theatre of the mind, in keeping with the imperative towards imaginative involvement issued by Dickens in an intended epigraph to one of his novels, âYour homes the scene, yourselves the actors, here!â.8 Scroogeâs getting of wisdom, his recall to outgoing vision, has a counterpart in those occasions where we are prompted to take a renewed interest in people, especially the vulnerable and the overbearing. We shall encounter several great set pieces in this vein: Bumble, of all men, driven to shed a tear for Oliver; Steerforthâs ruthless baiting of the defenceless Mr Mell; Magwitch succoured in open court by Pip, who has trod the same path as Scrooge, from selfishness to charity.
This is Dickensian epiphany: not a leaping of the spirit in the presence of the Divine or, as characteristically for the Romantics, of Nature, but a becoming of healthy emotional and moral instincts in anthropocentric contexts. It is part and parcel of âthe Word made Novelâ in Dickens and his contemporaries, or, better perhaps, of âthe Novel made Wordâ; an aspect, that is, of their embrace of a long tradition of teaching whose operation and ends are memorably signalled in the âScola Cordisâ of the Emblems of Francis Quarles â âPeruse this little Book; and thou wilt see / What thy heart is, and what it ought to beâ.9 Put another way, we are here, as Matthew Arnold and the Leavises famously did in their generations, witnessing to literature as the provider of a new canon, a substitute bible, a secular scripture informed by and disseminating â to quote from T.R. Wrightâs investigation of the interface of Theology and Literature â âan alternative set of liberal-humanist valuesâ.10 The âliberal humanismâ of Dickensâs novels comprises major elements of their still-continuing relevance and appeal; but the phrase also signals a historic reorientation of cultural authority, and brings us, now, to the matter of ideology.
That the novelist had serious mass influence was a fact fully recognized in Dickensâs time. A piece in the Westminster Review, âNovels with a Purposeâ, which appeared in 1864, the year Our Mutual Friend was begun, presses the point unreservedly:
The novelist is now our most influential writer. If he be a man of genius his power over the community he addresses is far beyond that of any author. Macaulayâs influence over the average English mind was narrow compared with that of Dickens; even Carlyleâs was not on the whole so great as that of ThackerayâŚ. The influence of the novelist is beginning, too, to be publicly acknowledged of late much more frankly than was once the fashion. For a long time his power over society, except as a mere teller of stories and provider of easy pastime, was ignored or disputed. It was, indeed, something like the power of women in politics; an influence almost all-pervading, almost irresistible, but silent, secret, and not to be openly acknowledged.11
There is, of course, an ideology at work in this very statement, where the âmasculineâ is assumed to be open, public, respectable, while the âfeminineâ acts covertly, in close ways that are somehow dangerous, perhaps disreputable, and cannot be brought into the light. The implication of the passage is that the novel has come of age, achieved a position of legitimate, manly sway mentionable in the same breath as that of the Victorian sages â which is to say that the genre is being claimed for the patriarchal establishment. In fact, Dickensâs novels have never ceased to operate surreptitiously, as well as frankly, in influencing the reader. At the extreme, they are divided against themselves and call into question conventions which on the surface they uphold. Gender stereotyping itself is one of the fields in which this most forcibly happens. For the moment, however, it is enough to be reminded that his texts are, whatever else, conduits for the inculcation and reinforcement of particular attitudes and beliefs and utilize both direct and indirect strategies to this end.
A small but telling instance occurs within the well-known satire on âPodsnapperyâ in Chapter 11 of Book 1 of Our Mutual Friend. Podsnap is a caricature of the nationalistic, self-made, upward-climbing, puritanical man of business â of âBritish Philistinismâ.12 At one of his dinner parties, he patronizes an âunfortunately-born foreignerâ, correcting his guestâs punctuation â âOur English adverbs do Not terminate in Mong and We Pronounce the âchâ as if there were a âtâ before it. We say Ritchâ â and bringing the pompous dose of education to a climax with an encomium on âthe Englishmanâ: âthere is in the Englishman a combination of qualities, a modesty, an independence, a responsibility, a repose, combined with an absence of everything calculated to call a blush into the cheek of a young person.â The joke is on Podsnap not only because of his overblown prudishness (which, we learn elsewhere, he applies with so much zeal as to turn his own daughter into a nervous wreck) but because of the manifest gap between his own character and the traits he has idealized. Dickensâs explicit purpose lies in deprecating the myopic self-regard and monocultural barbarism with which Podsnap almost explodes. Implicitly, however, he is trailing an ideology of his own, which, though not jingoistic, is certainly about bringing and holding the nation together. Qualities are qualities whether Podsnap possesses them or not, and those he lists â âmodestyâ, âindependenceâ, âresponsibilityâ, âreposeâ â are among the conspicuous virtues of John Harmon, one of the two heroes of the novel, who is balanced and quietly efficient, never brash though well-to-do and good at business, kindly towards friends and the needy, the perfect family man â Harmon[ious] within and spreading Harmon[y] without. He is a paragon of the English middle class, in whom the common sense and reasonable values of liberal humanism are allied to an instinct for practical success and standing.
Dickens thus reflects and puts in place, for immediate want of a better phrase, a bourgeois ideology. This is not a matter of simply presenting a given outlook or suite of ideas, however, but of participating in their construction. Andrew Blake rounds off his study of the intersections between developing Victorian ideologies and Victorian novels by stating that the latter were concerned with
the reproduction of society: with the integration of the new wealthy, new powerful, and new respectable groups into the already existing ruling class structure, and the modification of that culture to include within it many new ideological elements associated with those groupsâŚ. The novel was an arena of public information, of public debate, and of âinterpellationâ, helping by its concerns to form society by helping to form individuals as members of that society.13
This is helpfully put in respect of Dickens, though he is not one of the authors Blake considers. To âinterpellationâ I shall come in a moment. Of easier note...