While criticsâ examination of several fairytale motifs in BrontĂ«âs novel is certainly significant, women writers in the nineteenth century were particularly intrigued by the concept of feminine empowerment conveyed by the fairy-bride tradition in Jane Eyre. According to Carole Silverâs ââEast of the Sun and West of the Moonâ: Victorians and Fairy Bridesâ (1987), this fairy lore challenged the patriarchal social norms emerging in the nineteenth century, as the reaction of Victorian folklorists demonstrates. Amid the myriad, and often conflicting, messages conveyed by BrontĂ«âs fairytale allusions, her fairy lore sets this novel apart from other narratives and may explain the attraction of Jane Eyre for nineteenth-century women writers. The pre-Victorian fairy offers an alternative construction of female identity and female power, which clashes with Victorian ideals of feminine passivity and domesticity. The fairy bride maintained her independence and her power after marriage; she could not be confined to the domestic sphere. Most prominent folklorists responded to the fairy bride as if it were a threat to Victorian values and attempted to explain it away as a lost figure from a âconquered raceâ (C. Silver 289). Silver contextualized this threat with Victorian legal battles over married womenâs rights (C. Silver 284); the fairy-bride narrative was especially threatening because it challenged the hotly contested practice of stripping married women of any autonomy. Victorian folklorists claimed the fairy bride represented a lost matriarchal culture that was eventually subsumed by more powerful patriarchal cultures. By embedding the fairy-bride tradition in a narrative of progress that glorified the Victorian patriarchy, folklorists attempted to qualify and undermine the counterculture message: as a remnant of a lost culture, the narrative was no longer relevant.
Haworth's Gate to Faery
While the pre-Victorian North Country fairy lore that empowered BrontĂ«âs heroine was not the remnant of a past matriarchy, it was lost to later literature. This distinction between pre-Victorian and Victorian influences is explicitly absent from most scholarly discussions of Jane Eyre.9 Written on the cusp of the Victorian era, BrontĂ«âs first novel taps into an alternative fairy-lore tradition that challenges emerging ideals for women, but it is a performance that cannot be repeated. All Jane Eyreâs literary descendants, including BrontĂ« herself in her final novel, Villette (1853), are dealing with that perceived lack of the changeling heroine and her pre-Victorian lore. Silver claims that BrontĂ«âs heroine Jane Eyre is the last acclaimed portrayal of the fairy bride in British literature (C. Silver 292â4). The following chapters examine this loss, beginning with BrontĂ«âs Villette, and suggest explanations for it.
Growing up in the North Country during the 1820s and 1830s, Charlotte BrontĂ« was immersed in a pre-Victorian fairy-lore tradition. BrontĂ«âs father, Reverend Patrick BrontĂ«, was the Perpetual Curate of the Established Church in Haworth; the parsonage was on the edge of the Pennine Moors in West Yorkshire, part of the North Country.10 Unlike Victorian fairy lore, which developed a rather canonical set of tropes and ideology as it was mass-produced in art and literature, pre-Victorian fairy lore in Great Britain is regional and lacks set conventions. The golden age of fairy painting and literature was during the height of the Victorian Era.11 This mass-produced fairy lore continues to govern and influence Western perceptions of this tradition. Thus, reconstructing a pre-Victorian fairy lore is challenging. It requires a shift in interpretive frameworks and material that predate the majority of fairy lore produced in Great Britain.
BrontĂ«âs writing was a part of a fairy-lore tradition that was both oral and literary. Without constructing a dichotomizing framework of orality and literacy, I have detected the existence of alternative fairy-lore traditions with distinctive and powerful representations of womanhood that BrontĂ« incorporated into Jane Eyre. This oral fairy lore is also particularly regional. Thus, BrontĂ«âs powerful changeling is also a regional figure. While the literary sources available to the BrontĂ«s have been well established, only glimmers of the oral tradition remain, captured in the papers of the BrontĂ« family and in the geography surrounding the BrontĂ« parsonage.
In Emily BrontĂ«âs Wuthering Heights (1847), Catherine Linton beguiled Hareton into taking her out to the moors, where he âopened the mysteries of the Fairy cave, and twenty other queer placesâ (153). This passage illustrates the direct connection between the land and pre-Victorian North Country fairy lore: âthe mysteries of the Fairy caveâ is a reference to fairy lore about a specific cave on the local moors. According to Jessica Lofthouse in North-Country Folklore (1976), fairy lore is literally tied to the land in the North Country.12 Wuthering Heights suggests that the BrontĂ«s were a part of this tradition.
Lofthouse claims that some links between fairy lore and the local environment are overt, such as engraved stones marking the burial sites of fairy creatures (30). However, most stories are linked to the natural landscape, like the Fairy cave in Wuthering Heights. One such place is Jennetâs Foss and Jennetâs Cave on the Pennine Moors in West Yorkshire. This rather spectacular geographic location has perpetuated stories about the North Countryâs distinctive fairy queen, Jennet. Lofthouse states:
The old, low-arched bridge has been replaced by a plain functional one. But take the path on the left bank to a bathing place fit for the Queen of Faery. The beck has its most dramatic moments here, plunging over black rocks in a waterfall called Jennetâs Foss, a veil of water half concealing Jennetâs Cave behind it. A place for water sprites or naiads ⊠who chose such places to fiddle to the accompaniment of falling water. Old folk-tales make it a gateway of Faery, and Jennet its queen. (21)
Despite the popularity of William Shakespeareâs immortal fairy queen, Titania, the regional geography associated with Jennet has kept her stories alive in the North Country. According to Winifred GĂ©rinâs biography Charlotte BrontĂ«: The Evolution of Genius (1967), the BrontĂ« children walked with Tabby and listened to her fairy lore (38â9). It is highly probable that a distinctive and popular landmark such as Jennetâs Cave would have been familiar to them.13 It may even be the cave Emily BrontĂ« alludes to in Wuthering Heights. References to Jennet also appear in the proposal scene in Jane Eyre.
According to legend, fairies are not only tied to the land in the North Country tradition, but they engage in mundane, local activities, such as going to market and doing laundry (Lofthouse 18â20). Their rural costumes and activities are a reflection of the local culture in miniature. Although female fairies are the most powerful and prominent in these stories, male fairies are mentioned frequently (Lofthouse 11â21). The fairies in the North Country tradition stories are very different from the decadent, hypersexualized, and infantilized fairies of later Victorian culture.
Fairy tales and local folklore were an integral part of life in the BrontĂ« parsonage when Charlotte BrontĂ« was growing up. In ââThat Kingdom of Gloomâ: Charlotte BrontĂ«, the Annuals, and the Gothicâ (1993), Christine Alexander includes Ellen Nusseyâs account of the amateur folklorist activity of the entire family.14 The Reverend Patrick BrontĂ« led his children in collecting local stories from the oldest members of the parish in Haworth (Alexander 412). Branwell BrontĂ«âs journal contains the few surviving examples of these tales, including the âDarkwell Gytrashâ (Leaf 11, Verso). Although the gytrash is a fairy beast rather than a fairy, the tale has the same elements as Lofthouseâs fairy lore. The tale is closely tied to the local geography and the local people, and the fairy beast is relatively powerful. Like Jennetâs Foss and Jennetâs Cave, Darkwell is a farm on the moors near the parsonage. The gytrash is specifically tied to the place and the family living there; it appears before or after tragic events (Branwell BrontĂ« Leaf 11, Verso). The evidence strongly suggests that the BrontĂ«s were familiar with the type of regional tales Lofthouse collected in North-Country Folklore.
Biographies of Charlotte BrontĂ« by both Elizabeth Gaskell and GĂ©rin recognize Tabby Ackroyd, the BrontĂ«sâ house servant, as the most significant source of folklore in BrontĂ«âs life (Gaskell 63â6; GĂ©rin 38â40). In The Life of Charlotte BrontĂ« (1857), Gaskell states:
Tabby had lived in Haworth in the days when the pack-horses went through once a week ⊠What is more, she had known the âbottom,â or valley, in those primitive days when the fairies frequented the margin of the âbeckâ on moonlight nights, and had known folk who had seen them ⊠. âIt wur the factories as had driven âem away,â she said. (63)
GĂ©rin emphasizes the connection between Tabbyâs stories and the local environment, especially the moors.
In her tales, where resentment yet burnt at the disfigurement of a beautiful landscape and the abolition of a centuries-old way of life, Tabby became an unconscious poet, filling the hills and woods and streams with an anthropomorphic life in which she believed with all the force of her good sense and rustic piety. In the golden age before the mills had come, there had been fairies by the beck-side in the hollows ⊠(38)
She not only told the BrontĂ« children stories about the fairies inhabiting the local landscape; she also âwalked with them on the moorsâ (39), taking them out into the world she filled with wonder. Tabbyâs fairy lore was so real to the children that Charlotte BrontĂ« thought she saw a fairy standing over her little sister Anneâs cradle, according to a letter included in Juliet Barkerâs The BrontĂ«s: A Life in Letters (1998).15 However, BrontĂ«âs literal belief in fairies is not as significant as her use of fairy tales and the fantastic to work through the trauma of loss. GĂ©rin claims that the BrontĂ« children all used fairy tales and magical stories to cope ...