a. The âIdealâ City, Education of the Classes, and the Curriculum of the Philosopher-Rulers
In the Republic, Plato details the ideal and fine (kalos) city âin wordsâ (logoi) that is founded on the essential understanding of justice (dikaiosyne), excellence (arĂȘte), and ultimately the Idea of the Good (idei tou agathou).1 The city (Kallipolis), as Guthrie (1975) observes, is really the âindividual magnifiedâ (444); however, in pursing justice in Book II, Socrates suggests first turning to analyze the city to âfind out what sort of thing justice is in a cityâ and then only âafterwards look for it in the individual, observing the ways in which the smaller is similar to the largerâ (Rep. 368e-369a). Socrates is ultimately concerned with the individual, and in this way the conception and potential actualization of the city draws on the familiar Socratic analogy between the cultivation of the individualâs soul (psyche)âor, as is my focus, the development and facilitation of a âgood-ethicalâ disposition (hexis)âand its intimate connection to the unfolding of âjustâ political activities of the state. The Phaedrus gives one of the most memorable portrayals in mythological imagery or, in terms of an echonic vision, as I introduce and develop in Chapters three and five, of the Socratic soul in tripartite (Phdr. 246a-254e), but in the Republic Socrates describes this notion of the soul, upon which the Kallipolis is grounded and from which it derives its template, in detail to Glaucon, stating that the soul is composed of three distinct elements: (1) the intellectual part concerned with âwisdom,â which is âthe part with which a person learnsâ, (2) the part composed of the spirited, but higher-level, passions, âthe part that gets angry,â and (3) the âmulti-form part,â which is by far the greatest in capacity, so named after the âbiggest and strongest thing in it,â which indicates that it is the âappetitive part, because of the intensity of its appetites for food, drink, sex, and all the things associated with them, but we also called it the money-loving part, because such appetites are most easily satisfied by means of moneyâ (Rep. 380e). These three parts of the soul have their correlates in the three classes of citizens that inhabit the city and, by extension, the capacity of each part of the soul is mirrored in the population of the polisâs demographic of citizenry who are determined to be wise, spirited, and appetitive: (1) the philosopher-kings/rulers, (2), the epikouroi, and (3) the demiourgoi.
We must be careful to avoid the anachronistic move of equating the âclassesâ of the citizenry in the ideal city with the caste system (Guthrie, 1975; Taylor, 2001), which often occurs âdue to the unconscious influence of ideas derived from our experience of modern industrialismâ (Taylor, 2001, 275). The âcharacteristic of a caste,â as Taylor points out, âis that one is born into it, and that once born into a caste it is impossible to rise above itâ (275). A caste system is grounded in economic stratification; the Kallipolis is not. Platoâs social-political order embraces and values âclass mobilityâ and is far more concerned with oneâs ability and character than with oneâs economic status. I begin with the largest class, the demiougoi, which represent not merely the âartisansâ or the working class, but also the âwage earners or persons who maintain themselves by selling their labourâ and the bulk of the general âcivilian population, independently of economic statusâ (275). The members of this class that produce goods for sale do so both for the purpose of acquiring personal material wealth, for this class owns private property, and for the good of the collective state. The epikouroi represent the second largest class and are referred to as âguardiansâ of the state. This class serves and carries out orders passed down from the class of ârulersâ by employing the ânecessary physical force against enemies from without and malcontents and offenders from withinâ (276). Plato chooses the term âepikouroiâ to refer to this class because it represents the literal sense of âhelpersâ or âauxiliariesâ in Attic Greek, but also because it denotes the âtechnical name for the trained professional body-guard of monarchs, and therefore indicates the important point that the âexecutiveâ of the Socratic state is a carefully trained professional fighting force, not an amateur constabulatory or militiaâ (276). The final class of citizens, composed of the finest and wisest of the population, is the âruling class,â also referred to by Socrates as âguardiansâ of the state, but also more properly known as the âphilosopher kings/queensâ of the Kallipolis.
The curriculum for educating each of the three classes of citizens shares certain similarities, e.g., all the youths begin with instruction in mousike, broadly equated with liberal arts studies, and then gymnastike, physical training in the martial arts, and a basic course in mathematike. However, the epikouroi (the auxiliaries) and the potential future philosopher rulers as state guardians receive the greatest attention and care in their upbringing and education and are, unlike the demiourgoi, tracked through an advanced course of study in mathematike. Although the demiourgoi receive a similar education to those who later demonstrate the superior aptitude to assume their status as members of the other two classes, this education is basic and limited, for the education of the demiourgoi is focused on training to perfect the âtechnicalâ skills required to carry out their duty to the state, since they are to assume the role of âproducers.â Mousike plays a crucial role in the curriculum for it powerfully shapes the soul, or moral disposition (hexis), of the students, and the programmatic curriculum has prescriptive and proscriptive views concerning what types of literature, poetry, and music are most appropriate for students (Rep. 401a-e). For example, as related to literature and poetry, the curriculum prohibits the inclusion of stories that have the potential to either weaken or corrupt the moral dispositions of the youths. Therefore, the myths of Hesiod and Homer, which contain scandalous and immoral behavior by the gods, represent the type of myths that are excluded from the formal teaching of literature and poetry. The various modes of music that the youths are exposed to also influence the soulâs development. With this in mind, Plato selects the Dorian and Phrygian modes of music for inclusion in the stateâs curriculum because they instill a sense of courage and convey a sense of beauty. However, modes of music inspiring overly emotional moods and states of the soul detrimental to the development of the virtuous and noble traits required for the âjustâ state are excluded, and these include the modes of the Ionian, Hyperlydian, Lydian, and Mixolydian. The well-balanced soul also includes the concern for a strong and healthy body, and so gymnastike is required in the form of martial arts training that includes a strict dietary component to the health regime.
The study of mathematics is crucial for Plato in justifying the eventual separation of the epikouroi from the potential philosopher rulers. For it is the study of mathematics that will eventually establish which students are fit enough in intellect and virtue to potentially lead the state and the populous. Here, the youth receive training in rational and abstract thought, with the aim of graduating from the concern with material entities and images to thinking about the abstractions that underlie and instantiate them. The curriculum is progressive and includes the rigorous study of arithmetic, plane geometry, solid geometry, astronomy, and harmonics. The study in mathematics works to prepare students to intuit (noesis) eternal realities in terms of unchanging patterns, enlisting abstract reasoning to understand numbers, figures, movement, proportion, which are gleaned from observable and visible diagrams. It is the advanced study in mathematics that sets the stage for instruction in the dialectic, which is crucial for the philosopher rulers to master. However, it must be noted that students are continually observed, monitored, and assessed for their potential as future rulers of the states throughout the entire educational process, with the ultimate objective of separating the philosopher rulers from the epikouroi. Socrates informs Glaucon that education must provide the opportunity to develop superior students who are indeed few in number, who are âtested in the labors, fears, and pleasuresâ and âthey must be exercised in many other subjects⊠to see whether they can tolerate the most important subjects or will shrink from them like the cowards who shrink from other testsâ (Rep. 503e-504a). Students who excel in the study of mousike, gymnastike, and mathematike, specifically in advanced mathematics (Rep. 522c-531d; 537c-d,), showing the greatest promise for rational, abstract conceptualization combined with the drive to pursue the highest forms or form of truth, i.e., knowing the eidoi and the Idea of the Good, are then chosen to pursue the next step in the education that marks off the philosopher rulers from all other classes, namely, the instruction in the dialectic (Rep. 537d-540a; 531e-535a). The best students from this stage of the educational process are chosen for practical political service (Rep. 539e-540a), and those who excel at both the dialectic and show superior aptitude in their practical political training are considered worthy to earn the moniker âphilosopher kingâ and serve the state as a âguardianâ (Rep. 540a).
b. The Traditional and Doctrinal Reading of the Dialectic in Platoâs Republic
As I elucidate the final phases of the education of the ârulersâ or âphilosopher guardians,â considering the most crucial component of their education is training in and mastery of the dialectic, there is a move away from the general reading of Platoâs education and curriculum in the Republic in order to adopt the âliteralistâ language of Sahakian and Sahakian (1977). This sets the stage for a critical re-interpretation of this traditionalist understanding of Platoâs view of both paideusis and the dialectic as a method for procuring apodictic truth or absolute knowledge of the so-called Idea of the Good and the subsequent insight (noesis) of the Forms and ârealityâ as a whole as envisioned in Socratesâs presentation of the dialectic in relation to both the Divided Line and the Allegory of the Cave. To beginâand this view of Plato as a âdoctrinalâ and systematic philosopher will, in line with my project, be referenced throughout subsequent chaptersâI examine the language and technical terminology employed by Sahakian and Sahakian to explain Platoâs philosophy of education, knowledge, and the place and function of the dialectic in the education of the philosopher rulers. The education of the ruling class, according to the authors, is a terminal programmatic curriculum, in that once training in politics and the dialectic is complete, which is synonymous with the âacquisitionâ of sure and certain truth of ultimate âreality,â the rulers are equipped to lead the city.
The âauxiliaries [epikouroi] need only know what is right to believe and do, knowledge which they receive from the rulers, the guardiansâ (97). The guardians, however, âin order to execute their duties completely, must possess wisdom so their counsel will be good and prudentâ (97â98). This passage indicates that the guardians âhaveâ (echein) knowledge as opposed to âseekingâ (zetein) knowledge, a view that directly contradicts Socratesâs repeated claims to âignoranceâ in the dialogues (e.g., the Apology and Meno), which includes the Republic, where Socrates searches unsuccessfully for the legitimate understanding of âjustice.â Soc...