Rome: Continuing Encounters between Past and Present

Dorigen Caldwell

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2016
• Print ISBN: 9781138383982
• eBook ISBN: 9781351902410
• Topic: Architecture
• Subtopic: Histoire de l'architecture

Few other cities can compare with Rome's history of continuous habitation, nor with the survival of so many different epochs in its present. This volume explores how the city's past has shaped the way in which Rome has been built, rebuilt, represented and imagined throughout its history. Bringing together scholars from the disciplines of architectural history, urban studies, art history, archaeology and film studies, this book comprises a series of studies on the evolution of the city of Rome and the ways in which it has represented and reconfigured itself from the medieval period to the present day. Moving from material appropriations such as spolia in the medieval period, through the cartographic representations of the city in the early modern period, to filmic representation in the twentieth century, we encounter very different ways of making sense of the past across Rome's historical spectrum. The broad chronological arrangement of the chapters, and the choice of themes and urban locations examined in each, allows the reader to draw comparisons between historical periods. An imaginative approach to the study of the urban and architectural make-up of Rome, this volume will be valuable not only for historians of art and architecture, but also for students of cultural history and film studies.

1

Roman Archaeology in Medieval Rome

Caroline J. Goodson

The image of Rome is so often a vision of ruins, crumbling romantically or standing proud against a Mediterranean sky. The ruins of antiquity, whether the rustic tufo of Republican walls and temples or the red brick and white marble of the imperial buildings, attract most attention from modern visitors. Like modern tourists, medieval visitors to the city admired Rome’s antiquities and explored the ruins. Very recent archaeological research has cast light on the history of these monuments in the Middle Ages, which allows us to better reconstruct the cityscape of Rome in the seventh, eighth or ninth centuries. In the Middle Ages, the material remains of antiquity were indices for medieval attitudes and ambitions for their present. On the one hand, the roads, walls, aqueducts and buildings of ancient Rome provided a frame and a model for monumental urbanistic expression in the Middle Ages. On the other hand, the legacy of Rome’s Christian past lent the medieval city and its builders ultimate prestige in the crafting of the city around the cult of saints. Close attention to the material culture of early medieval Rome brings into focus the significance of ancient artefacts in the building of the medieval city and the medieval idea of the city itself. What follows is an attempt to point out two different yet related roles of ancient archaeology in medieval Rome: as models of architectural canons and the politics of architecture and as potent pathways to the sacred past. These two roles of archaeology in the medieval city diverge from the conventionally understood significance of ancient materials in the Middle Ages, as revival or Classicism, and in better understanding the uses of the past in the medieval Rome we can better understand the sophisticated constructions of authority and power which focused on it.

Excavations using modern scientific techniques are bringing to light the medieval city where our information was limited previously to imperial buildings. Few areas of Rome’s ancient city centre survived the campaigns of un-stratigraphic digging in the 1880s and 1930s. Those excavations unearthed the monuments of imperial Rome, yet often failed to document – sometimes even to recognize – the remains of late antique and early medieval buildings. Through new campaigns of stratigraphic excavation in key areas, and the revision of old excavation notes, it is becoming clear that many major monuments of the ancient city were still standing, if not indeed in use, in the early Middle Ages.¹ These standing remains left a legacy for the builders of medieval Rome. At a very basic level, the materials of ruined buildings were employed in new architecture, from bricks to marble columns, entablatures and panels. But much more than architectural spolia, the ancient structures served as exempla for new buildings in the medieval period. The form and order of Rome’s medieval monumental architecture were appropriated from the structures which stood among the new buildings. Similarly the placement and position of ancient monuments and sites in the city often gave significance to the location of new building projects such as churches and houses. Certain streets were preserved, and the language of ancient monumental architecture endured from late antiquity; as did, I argue, the social function of erecting monuments in central public spaces, which shifted from the donation of statues and inscriptions to the foundation of churches. I shall present this new view of the relationship between ancient and medieval monuments with a few examples drawn from areas of central Rome around the Fora.

In certain key areas, the facades of major monuments were restored in order to maintain the street fronts of important thoroughfares, even if the interiors of buildings were no longer being used.² These gave an ordered face to the city which perpetuated the principles, forms and materials of imperial and late antique architecture.³ The Basilica Aemilia (sometimes called the Basilica Pauli) on the Forum Romanum is one example of such a restoration. The public basilica, originally constructed in the second century bce, had been rebuilt in the period of Augustus and then again shortly thereafter, but was severely damaged in a fire in the fifth century, perhaps attributable to one of the Gothic sacks of the city.⁴ It lay at the heart of the Forum, between the Curia Senatus and the Temple of Antoninus Pius and Faustina, where the Argiletum, the main road, led down from the bustling Suburra (the Esquiline Hill) to the open paved area that marked the centre of the Forum (Figure 1.1). After the fire, the facade of the basilica had collapsed or was levelled and the sides facing the Argiletum and the Forum were rebuilt. The marble Argiletum facade with its Ionic columns was replaced with a brick wall with niches, and the Forum facade was reconstructed with a set of 24 ancient columns of granite, acquired from another building.⁵ The corners of the original portico, where the internal stairs strengthened the building, apparently survived the fire with their fluted Doric columns intact.⁶ The original Forum facade, described in antiquity as one of the most beautiful, had a double order of fluted white marble pilasters set into a rows of round arches, serving as entrances on the ground level and a loggia above; there were two Doric friezes of bucrania and rosettes (Figure 1.2). The proportions of the facade were open and spacious, with the fluted pilasters and the Doric frieze creating a visual frame of vertical symmetry while the rounded arches which actually supported the building’s weight played a minor visual role. In contrast, the fifth-century facade had a lower order of pink granite columns on tall white marble socle bases. There were 24 columns, half as many again as in the earlier facade, placed close together in order to support the weight of the portico without the aid of walls of round arches. The upper storey of the portico appears to have replicated the round arches of the earlier facade, though without its pilasters or friezes. Some of these elements are typical of late antique monumental architecture: the square socle bases of the columns, the free-standing spolia columns forming a portico, and the large round arches of the upper apertures of the wall. The portico served as an important and lasting example of this architectural paradigm in a prominent location. The shops inside the portico along the Forum frontage were still in use in the sixth century when they were outfitted with marble pavements. A house was constructed in part of the facade, using blocks of tufo and parts of an ancient frieze, in the late eight or early ninth century.⁷ Indeed parts of the portico remained standing until the sixteenth century, when they were finally dismantled. Behind this facade and partial occupation lay piles of debris and the interior of the building was no longer used.

1.1 Map of the Forum in the seventh century Source: Author

1.2 Basilica Aemilia: upper drawing: the Forum-facing façade of the Basilica Aemilia in the fourth century. After Christian Hülsen, Il foro romano: Storia e monumenti (Rome: Loescher, 1905); lower drawing: the Forum-facing façade of the Basilica Aemiliain in the sixth century. After Eva Margareta Steinby (ed.), Lexicon topgraphicum urbis Romae, 6 vols (Rome: Quasar, 1993–2002)

The Basilica Aemilia is an example of one kind of restored/abandoned building which shaped the early medieval city of Rome, a phenomenon which would be called facadism in modern architectural preservation terms. Certain public buildings and several large domus which were no longer used in their entirety were nonetheless preserved within the urban fabric of the city.⁸ The Forum, in particular the paved area between the first-century Rostra, the late antique Rostra and the Curia Senatus, was the site of architectural investment even after the main functions of these buildings as administrative centres were lost.⁹ This kind of preservation of monumentality, and even sporadic new construction on the Forum, continued through the seventh century. For example, in 608 ce, a new statue was placed atop a victory column in the centre of the Forum, a monument to accompany the row of similar columns atop marble-lined bases erected to commemorate victories still standing along the western edge of the Forum.¹⁰ The statue on top of the Column of Phocas commemorated Byzantine Emperor Phocas, who reigned from 602–610; the fluted column itself and the Corinthian capital, however, date from the midsecond century and were remounted in the fourth century on a concrete and marble base positioned in front of the Rostra. The base was placed deliberately in alignment with the passage between the Forum of Nerva and the Forum Romanum, the Argiletum, and the row of earlier victory columns on the south of the Forum. This careful squaring of the monument to these divergent axes, both in the fourth and in the seventh century, indicates the continued importance of this public space as an intersection and as the locus of public honorary monuments. Even though the interior of the Basilica Aemilia was decrepit, its facades and the streets around it continued to impose upon later urban interventions. The main axes and confines of the Forum were deliberately maintained into the ninth century.¹¹ Indeed, the centre of the Forum Romanum was still the centre of the urbs. Among the ten itineraries of the monuments and sites of Rome composed in the mid-eighth century by the Einsiedeln pilgrim, three passed through the Forum Romanum.¹²

Starting in the seventh century, ancient buildings around the Forum Romanum and on the Forum of Nerva were converted into churches through relatively minor modifications to their interior structures. The church of SS. Cosma e Damiano (527 ce) took over a hall which served as the vestibule of the Forum of Nerva and an adjacent rotunda.¹³ Its creation forced a reorganization of secondary pathways between the Fora, though the main thoroughfares remained what they had been in previous centuries.¹⁴ The new monument asserted its presence in urban space by blocking an existing pathway. To experience it from the exterior, the church was apparent, but its architectural expression was inconspicuous. The hall was fitted with new windows and a glass mosaic depicting a Risen Christ flanked by Peter, Paul, and the medical saints to whom the church is dedicated, Saints Cosmas and Damian and the founder, Pope Felix IV (526–30)...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Dedication
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• List of Illustrations
• Notes on Contributors
• Foreword
• Preface
• Introduction: Continuities of Place
• 1 Roman Archaeology in Medieval Rome
• 2 Roma Renascens: Sixteenth-century Maps of the Eternal City
• 3 Time Concertinaed at the Altar of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere
• 4 Lione Pascoli, Giovanni Gaetano Bottari, Giovanni Battista Nolli: Functions and Topography of Rome in the Eighteenth Century
• 5 The Political Topography of Modern Rome, 1870–1936: Via XX Settembre to Via dell’Impero
• 6 ‘Reconciliation’ or ‘Conquest’? The Opening of the Via della Conciliazione and the Fascist Vision for the ‘Third Rome’
• 7 ‘An Extraordinary Proliferation of Layers’: Pasolini’s Rome(s)
• 8 Piazza Vittorio: Cinematic Notes on the Evolution of a Piazza
• 9 Archaeology and the Modern City: Thoughts on Rome (and Elsewhere)
• Bibliography
• Index