Before Middle Passage: Translated Portuguese Manuscripts of Atlantic Slave Trading from West Africa to Iberian Territories, 1513-26

Trevor P. Hall

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2016
• ISBN:
  9781317175711
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Slavery
• Index: Social Sciences

On the 20th of January 1526, the Santiago left Lisbon bound for Africa with a cargo of brass and tin bracelets, round bells, barber basins and cloth; by early October the ship was back in Portugal with a very different cargo, 108 enslaved Africans. With chilling detachment the ship's trading log records the commodification of human beings, the prices paid for them, the sums received for their sale and the number who did not survive the crossing. Whilst this log may be extremely rare, it is clear from another surviving document, the receipt book of the customs office of the Portuguese Cape Verde Islands, that such voyages were commonplace in the early years of the sixteenth century. The bulk of this volume consists of a translation into English of the receipt book from the customs office of the Cape Verde Islands. In it Portuguese customs agents recorded import duties on over 3, 000 slaves transported from nearby West Africa in 36 ships. The customs officers named the slave traders, ships, officers, crew, and outfitters of the ships, as well as the price of each slave and the import duty collected by the Portuguese government and the Catholic Church. A second section of the customs book provides details of export taxes paid on c.600 African slaves by merchants from Portugal, Spain, and the Spanish Canary Islands, when they exchanged European merchandise for slaves. The final chapter of the volume translates the Santiago's log, providing an example of an actual slave trading expedition. Taken together these documents open a rare window into the workings and scope of the early Atlantic slave trade.

Chapter 1
Translation of Ships Paying Customs Duties in the Cape Verde Islands, 1513

Preface

The first chapter of the translated Portuguese documents begins in 1513 when three ships sailed to Portugal after paying customs duties in Cape Verde customs houses, on two enslaved African children, cowhides, and goatskins. None of the vessels reported carrying other captive Africans. The short customs entries suggest a partial listing, when compared with cargo of other vessels that traded with Portugal in Chapter 6. The remainder of the chapter translates Cape Verde customs records when ships returned to the islands after trading in West Africa. Most vessels sailed to Ribeira Grande, where the almoxarife head customs officer, Alvaro Diaz, examined African captives and cargo. He then assigned a price to each, and collected import duties, in-kind or in cash.

In 1513, the customs receipt book listed no food among the cargo of these ships—unlike other ships that returned from West Africa in 1514, 1515, and 1516. Food imported by Cape Verde colonists from West Africa included a grain called milho. Large quantities of milho were imported from West Africa. Before 1514, most other Portuguese records spoke of milho zabutto or millet; yet, after that time these customs documents list milho. Most historical records conclude that this was too early for milho to be corn from America.

According to the translated records, Portuguese customs officers in the Cape Verde Islands did not ask colonists how they obtained the African captives whom they declared as slaves. There was no Portuguese judicial tribunal or Catholic priest who questioned the legality of enslaving Africans. All the Africans whom Cape Verde merchants declared as slaves were labeled as legitimate slaves by Portuguese customs officers. Over time, Cape Verde colonists associated slaves with West Africans; however, not all Africans in the colony were slaves. Although there were free black Cape Verde colonists, there were no known white slaves in the colony. The Cape Verde Islands was the first European colony with an enslaved black majority. It was also the first European colony where all slaves were Africans. In Iberia, the Portuguese Azores, the Madeiras, and the Spanish Canaries, there were black, white, and brown slaves.

The first chapter sets the pattern followed by ships that sailed from West Africa to the Cape Verde Islands and paid taxes on enslaved Africans and merchandise. It shows Cape Verde customs officers preferred to collect taxes by keeping human captives and merchandise. Corrupt customs officials made money exchanging healthy captive Africans for sick ones and substituting excellent trade goods for inferior products. Money was harder to steal once noted in the customs receipt books. Corruption may explain partial entries in the 1513 customs records. Alvaro Diaz, the head customs officer, was later charged with corruption; however, he kept his post and continued stealing. In 1513 the King of Portugal sent a special judge to investigate the lawless Cape Verde colony, and this may explain the increased data in customs entries for 1514 to1516.

This is the beginning of English translations for ships paying duty to customs officers in harbors located on the largest Cape Verde Island called Santiago, beginning in 1513.¹

Folha 2

Ship #1

Departures

Item. On 20 July 1513 the ship San Guyam departed this town [of Ribeira Grande, Santiago Island] destined for Portugal, Goncalo de Liam owned the vessel, and its pilot was Joham d’Aveiro. A Genoese passenger, Malhorquym, transported two small [captive African] children who were 5 to 6 years old. The head customs officer (almoxarife) appraised the children to be worth 8,000 reis. The scribe witnessed the transactions. Customs collected the dizima a 10 percent export tax.²

Ship #2

Item. On the 28th day of the same month [July 1513], a ship named Anunciade departed this town [of Ribeira Grande] destined for Portugal. Niculao Rodriguez owned the vessel, and Manuel Piriz worked as mestre [skipper]. The following passengers transported cowhides and goatskins, and they paid the 10 percent export tax.

Item. Tome Diaz declared ten hides, and gave customs one as duty. Later on, customs sold the hide for 130 reis.

Folha 2v

Item. The merchant above declared eight additional hides, valued by customs to be worth 900 reis, because they were small. The 10 percent duty was 90 reis.

Item. Pero Fernandez declared nine hides. Customs valued them at 1,000 reis, and collected 100 reis.

Item. The merchant above declared two dozen goatskins. Customs valued them at 800 reis, and collected the 10 percent tax of 80 reis.

Item. Manuel Piriz, mestre of the said ship, declared eight hides to customs. They were appraised to be worth 1,150 reis, and customs collected 115 reis.

Item. Joham Luis declared six hides. Customs valued them at 690 reis, and collected 69 reis.

Folha 3

Item. Antonio Luis declared 14 small hides. Because many were small, customs took the largest, and later sold it for 150 reis.

Ship #3

Item. On 25 August of the said year 1513 a ship [no name given in the manuscript] departed this town [Ribeira Grande] destined for Portugal. Bertolameu Vaaz was the owner and pilot of the ship. He declared two dozen goatskins, and three cowhides. Customs valued everything at 1,500 reis, and collected 150 reis.³

[Note: The following 38 ships were outfitted in the Cape Verde Islands and traded in West Africa. When they returned to the Cape Verde Islands, merchants aboard the vessels paid import taxes to Portuguese customs officers on the captive Africans and merchandise. Chapter 1 is for ships dating summer 1513 to January 1514.]

Folha 14

Ship #4

The ship Santa Catarina

Outfitted by Antonio Rodriguez

The quarter and one-twentieth [import taxes]

Item. First, the following captive Africans came [to the Cape Verde Islands from West Africa] aboard the ship Santa Catarina.

Antonio Rodriguez outfitted the vessel, he was also the rendeiro [person who purchased the contract to collect the King of Portugal’s taxes in the Cape Verde Islands], for the past two years. The following enslaved Africans belonged to the said rendeiro. This occurred before Saint John day [24 June 1513].⁴

Item. Four captive Africans came aboard the said vessel, they were appraised [by Cape Verde customs officers] in order to calculate the one-fourth [import tax].⁵ Since the four were of various economic value, then customs appraised them to be worth 12,000 reis. Therefore, the one-fourth tax was 3,000 reis.

The vintena (or 5 percent) equaled 450 reis.

Item. Pero Gomez, captain of the ship, transported five captive Africans whom customs divided into four lots. Let it be known that one lot had two captive Africans who were appraised at different value. Customs took one captive African man who was 35 to 40 years old as the one-quarter import tax.

Folha 14v

The four remaining captives were appraised in order to collect the one-twentieth tax. These four captives were appraised to be worth 10,000 reis. The 5 percent tax equaled 500 reis.

Item. Diogo Lopez, scribe,⁶ transported two captive Africans, and retained one (tax-free) as his helper. Customs appraised the other captive to be worth 5,000 reis, of which the quarter was 1,250 reis.

The 5 percent equaled 187½ reis.

Item. The pilot brought two captives, whom customs valued for the one-fourth to be worth 10,000 reis. The said tax totaled 2,500 reis.

The 5 percent was 375 reis.

Item. Estevam Leytam brought four captive Africans who were not of the same economic value. Customs appraised them to be worth 10,000 reis, from which the one-fourth tax totaled 2,500 reis.

The vintena was 375 reis.

Item. Jorgue Filype was supplied by Antonio Rodriguez with three captives; customs valued them to be worth 10,000 reis, from which the one-quarter totaled 2,500 reis.

Folha 15

The vintena was 375 reis.

Item. Antonio Luis, preto [a free black man], furnished Antonio Rodriguez with two captives.⁷ Customs valued their worth at 7,000 reis, and collected the one-fourth duty of 1,750 reis. The 5 percent totaled 262½ reis.

Item. To Ruy Folgueira came one captive [African], owed to him in West Africa [called Guine in the manuscript].⁸ Customs appraised the captive to be worth 6,000 reis, on which the one-quarter duty totaled 1,500 reis.

The 5 percent tax was 225 reis.

Item. Pero Rodriguez, who was on the ship of Joham Ramyrez, transported one small male child 4 to 5 years old. Customs valued him to be worth 2,000 reis. The one-quarter tax was 500 reis.

The 5 percent tax was 75 reis.

Item. Lopo Vieyra transported two captives, and customs valued them to be worth 10,000 reis, on which the quarter in tax totaled 2,500 reis.

The 5 percent tax was 375 reis.

Folha 15v

This [same] passenger Lopo Vieyra paid [a fine of] 10 cruzados.⁹

This 10 cruzados is in the receipt book of the head customs officer, Alvaro Diaz, listed under miscellaneous category of the king’s revenue, in the sum of 54,000 reis.

List of [Captives] Transported by Agents¹⁰

Item. One captive came to Diogo Rodriguez, and the captive was appraised at 1,500 reis, on which the quarter was 375 reis. The 5 percent tax was 56 reis.

Item. One captive [African] came to Pero Alvarez who was valued at 1,000 reis, on which the one-quarter tax totaled 250 reis.

The 5 percent import tax was 37½ reis.

Another captive came to the almoxarife and was valued at 2,000 reis. The o...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Acknowledgments
• Preface to the Translations
• Facsimile of Cape Verde Customs Duty, 1513
• Maps
• Introduction
• 1 Translation of Ships Paying Customs Duties in the Cape Verde Islands, 1513
• 2 Translation of Vessels Paying Customs Duties, 1514
• 3 Customs Payments of Ships Returning from West Africa, 1514
• 4 Customs Duties Collected in the Cape Verde Islands, 1515
• 5 Final Customs Duties Paid by Ships Returning from Trading in West Africa, 1515–16
• 6 Merchants from Portugal, Spain, and the Spanish Canary Islands Paying Taxes on Captive Africans in the Cape Verde Islands, 1513–15
• 7 Onboard Log of Portuguese Ship Santiago Purchasing Captive Africans in Guinea Bissau and Sierra Leone, 1526
• Conclusion
• Graphs
• Appendix 1: Portuguese Weights and Measurements
• Appendix 2: Town Council of Riberia Grande (1512)
• Appendix 3: The King of Spain Grants Permission to the Governor of Bresa to Ship Four Thousand Enslaved Africans from Portuguese West African Colonies Directly to the Spanish Caribbean, 1518
• Bibliography
• Glossary
• Index