The Britannica Guide to Heat, Force, and Motion

Britannica Educational Publishing, Erik Gregersen

• Publisher: Britannica Educational Publishing
• Year: 2010
• ISBN:
  9781615303809
• Topic: Physical Sciences
• Subtopic: Physics
• Index: Physics

Many of the world's most common processes and interactions are governed by the laws of thermodynamics and mechanics. While the transfer, release, or absorption of heat often accompany chemical reactions or seem inherent to mechanical systems, they are also familiar to anyone who has ever spent time outdoors on a warm day or touched a hot plate. Likewise, any physical body—large or small, solid or fluid—is subject to a wide range of forces that trigger motion. This detailed compendium explores the foundations and laws of both thermodynamics and mechanics as well as the lives of those individuals who helped advance these fundamental areas of physics.

CHAPTER 1
THERMODYNAMICS: THE LAWS OF ENERGY AND WORK

Thermodynamics is the science of the relationship between heat, work, temperature, and energy. In broad terms, thermodynamics deals with the transfer of energy from one place to another and from one form to another. The key concept is that heat is a form of energy corresponding to a definite amount of mechanical work.

Heat was not formally recognized as a form of energy until about 1798, when Count Rumford (Sir Benjamin Thompson), a British military engineer, noticed that limitless amounts of heat could be generated in the boring of cannon barrels and that the amount of heat generated is proportional to the work done in turning a blunt boring tool. Rumford’s observation of the proportionality between heat generated and work done lies at the foundation of thermodynamics. Another pioneer was the French military engineer Sadi Carnot, who introduced the concept of the heat-engine cycle and the principle of reversibility in 1824. Carnot’s work concerned the limitations on the maximum amount of work that can be obtained from a steam engine operating with a high-temperature heat transfer as its driving force. Later that century, these ideas were developed by Rudolf Clausius, a German mathematician and physicist, into the first and second laws of thermodynamics, respectively.

The most important laws of thermodynamics are:

• The zeroth law of thermodynamics. When two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, the first two systems are in thermal equilibrium with each other. This property makes it meaningful to use thermometers as the “third system” and to define a temperature scale.

• The first law of thermodynamics, or the law of conservation of energy. The change in a system’s internal energy is equal to the difference between heat added to the system from its surroundings and work done by the system on its surroundings.

• The second law of thermodynamics. Heat does not flow spontaneously from a colder region to a hotter region, or, equivalently, heat at a given temperature cannot be converted entirely into work. Consequently, the entropy of a closed system, or heat energy per unit temperature, increases over time toward some maximum value. Thus, all closed systems tend toward an equilibrium state in which entropy is at a maximum and no energy is available to do useful work. This asymmetry between forward and backward processes gives rise to what is known as the “arrow of time.”

• The third law of thermodynamics. The entropy of a perfect crystal of an element in its most stable form tends to zero as the temperature approaches absolute zero. This allows an absolute scale for entropy to be established that, from a statistical point of view, determines the degree of randomness or disorder in a system.

Although thermodynamics developed rapidly during the 19th century in response to the need to optimize the performance of steam engines, the sweeping generality of the laws of thermodynamics makes them applicable to all physical and biological systems. In particular, the laws of thermodynamics give a complete description of all changes in the energy state of any system and its ability to perform useful work on its surroundings.

THERMODYNAMIC STATES

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The application of thermodynamic principles begins by defining a system that is in some sense distinct from its surroundings. For example, the system could be a sample of gas inside a cylinder with a movable piston, an entire steam engine, a marathon runner, the planet Earth, a neutron star, a black hole, or even the entire universe. In general, systems are free to exchange heat, work, and other forms of energy with their surroundings.

A system’s condition at any given time is called its thermodynamic state. For a gas in a cylinder with a movable piston, the state of the system is identified by the temperature, pressure, and volume of the gas. These properties are characteristic parameters that have definite values at each state and are independent of the way in which the system arrived at that state. In other words, any change in value of a property depends only on the initial and final states of the system, not on the path followed by the system from one state to another. Such properties are called state functions. In contrast, the work done as the piston moves and the gas expands and the heat the gas absorbs from its surroundings depend on the detailed way in which the expansion occurs.

The behaviour of a complex thermodynamic system, such as Earth’s atmosphere, can be understood by first applying the principles of states and properties to its component parts—in this case, water, water vapour, and the various gases making up the atmosphere. By isolating samples of material whose states and properties can be controlled and manipulated, properties and their interrelations can be studied as the system changes from state to state.

THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

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A particularly important concept is thermodynamic equilibrium, in which there is no tendency for the state of a system to change spontaneously. For example, the gas in a cylinder with a movable piston will be at equilibrium if the temperature and pressure inside are uniform and if the restraining force on the piston is just sufficient to keep it from moving. The system can then be made to change to a new state only by an externally imposed change in one of the state functions, such as the temperature by adding heat or the volume by moving the piston. A sequence of one or more such steps connecting different states of the system is called a process. In general, a system is not in equilibrium as it adjusts to an abrupt change in its environment. For example, when a balloon bursts, the compressed gas inside is suddenly far from equilibrium, and it rapidly expands until it reaches a new equilibrium state. However, the same final state could be achieved by placing the same compressed gas in a cylinder with a movable piston and applying a sequence of many small increments in volume (and temperature), with the system being given time to come to equilibrium after each small increment. Such a process is said to be reversible because the system is at (or near) equilibrium at each step along its path, and the direction of change could be reversed at any point. This example illustrates how two different paths can connect the same initial and final states. The first is irreversible (the balloon bursts), and the second is reversible. The concept of reversible processes is something like motion without friction in mechanics. It represents an idealized limiting case that is very useful in discussing the properties of real systems. Many of the results of thermodynamics are derived from the properties of reversible processes.

TEMPERATURE

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The concept of temperature is fundamental to any discussion of thermodynamics, but its precise definition is not a simple matter. For example, a steel rod feels colder than a wooden rod at room temperature simply because steel is better at conducting heat away from the skin. It is therefore necessary to have an objective way of measuring temperature. In general, when two objects are brought into thermal contact, heat will flow between them until they come into equilibrium with each other. When the flow of heat stops, they are said to be at the same temperature. The zeroth law of thermodynamics formalizes this by asserting that if an object A is in simultaneous thermal equilibrium with two other objects B and C, then B and C will be in thermal equilibrium with each other if brought into thermal contact. Object A can then play the role of a thermometer through some change in its physical properties with temperature, such as its volume or its electrical resistance.

With the definition of equality of temperature in hand, it is possible to establish a temperature scale by assigning numerical values to certain easily reproducible fixed points. For example, in the Celsius (°C) temperature scale, the freezing point of pure water is arbitrarily assigned a temperature of 0 °C and the boiling point of water the value of 100 °C (in both cases at 1 standard atmosphere). In the Fahrenheit (°F) temperature scale, these same two points are assigned the values 32 °F and 212 °F, respectively. There are absolute temperature scales related to the second law of thermodynamics. The absolute scale related to the Celsius scale is called the Kelvin (K) scale, and that related to the Fahrenheit scale is called the Rankine (°R) scale. These scales are related by the equations K = °C + 273.15, °R = °F + 459.67, and °R = 1.8 K.

WORK AND ENERGY

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Energy has a precise meaning in physics that does not always correspond to everyday language, and yet a precise definition is somewhat elusive. The word is derived from the Greek word ergon, meaning “work,” but the term work itself acquired a technical meaning with the advent of Newtonian mechanics. For example, a man pushing on a car may feel that he is doing a lot of work, but no work is actually done unless the car moves. The work done is then the product of the force applied by the man multiplied by the distance through which the car moves. If there is no friction and the surface is level, then the car, once set in motion, will continue rolling indefinitely with constant speed. The rolling car has something that a stationary car does not have—it has kinetic energy of motion equal to the work required to achieve that state of motion. The introduction of the concept of energy in this way is of great value in mechanics because, in the absence of friction, energy is never lost from the system, although it can be converted from one form to another. For example, if a coasting car comes to a hill, it will roll some distance up the hill before coming to a temporary stop. At that moment its kinetic energy of motion has been converted into its potential energy of position, which is equal to the work required to lift the car through the same vertical distance. After coming to a stop, the car will then begin rolling back down the hill until it has completely recovered its kinetic energy of motion at the bottom. In the absence of friction, such systems are said to be conservative because at any given moment the total amount of energy (kinetic plus potential) remains equal to the initial work done to set the system in motion.

As the science of physics expanded to cover an ever-wider range of phenomena, it became necessary to include additional forms of energy in order to keep the total amount of energy constant for all closed systems (or to account for changes in total energy for open systems). For example, if work is done to accelerate charged particles, then some of the resultant energy will be stored in the form of electromagnetic fields and carried away from the system as radiation. In turn the electromagnetic energy can be picked up by a remote receiver (antenna) and converted back into an equivalent amount of work. With his theory of special relativity, Albert Einstein realized that energy (E) can also be stored as mass (m) and converted back into energy, as expressed by his famous equation E = mc², where c is the velocity of light. All of these systems are said to be conservative in the sense that energy can be freely converted from one form to another without limit. Each fundamental advance of physics into new realms has involved a similar extension to the list of the different forms of energy. In addition to preserving the first law of thermodynamics, also called the law of conservation of energy, each form of energy can be related back to an equivalent amount of work required to set the system into motion.

Thermodynamics encompasses all of these forms of energy, with the further addition of heat to the list of different kinds of energy. However, heat is fundamentally different from the others in that the conversion of work (or other forms of energy) into heat is not completely reversible, even in principle. In the example of the rolling car, some of the work done to set the car in motion is inev...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Introduction
• Chapter 1: Thermodynamics: The Laws of Energy and Work
• Chapter 2: Thermodynamics: Systems at Work
• Chapter 3: The Laws of Force and Motion
• Chapter 4: The Laws of Particle Motion
• Chapter 5: Rigid Bodies
• Chapter 6: Solids
• Chapter 7: Stress and Strain
• Chapter 8: Liquids at Rest
• Chapter 9: Liquids in Motion
• Chapter 10: Gravity: The Force of Attraction
• Chapter 11: Gravity: The Universe
• Chapter 12: Biographies
• Glossary
• Bibliography
• Index