1 Reproductive Bodies and Bodily Narratives in Early Modern England, 1603â1660
This study examines the conceptualization and representation of womenâs reproductive bodies on the early modern page and stage. In the texts I analyze, differing and frequently contradictory depictions of the female body proliferate, leading to conflict and competition over representation. This conflict is frequently gendered, and the competitors range from kings to midwives, scholars of anatomy to female religious sectarians. Ultimately, meaning is produced through ever-shifting combinations of words and bodies, texts and speech, creating an atmosphere of instability in which womenâs representational authority challenges and often supersedes that of men.
The remarkable story of Anne Greene serves as a fitting introduction to this studyâs focus, methods, and themes. Greene, an Oxford woman, was hanged for infanticide on 14 December 1650. Greeneâs child had been born in secret and found dead in an outhouse; during her trial, she admitted to having an affair with her employerâs grandson and conceiving his child. Although Greene insisted that her baby had been stillborn, the court found her guilty, assuming that she murdered her newborn in order to conceal her sexual misconduct. After her execution Greeneâs body was turned over to local physicians for dissection, but before they could begin they noticed that she seemed to breathe. For several days the physicians labored to revive her, finally bringing her fully back to life. Upon hearing of her remarkable recovery, the governor and justices of the peace revoked the death sentence.
The most detailed print accounts of Anne Greeneâs story appear in two pamphlets: Richard Watkinsâs Newes from the Dead (1651) and William Burdetâs A Wonder of Wonders (1651).1 In these accounts, Greeneâs body consistently challenges attempts to control, contain, and explain it. First, the unmarried Greene engages in an illicit sexual affair with a social superior and successfully conceals her pregnancy prior to her delivery/miscarriage. This sexual unruliness is compounded by her bodyâs refusal to succumb to the punishment meted out by legal authorities: Despite her conviction, Greene simply will not die. As a result, her body also evades the attempts of medical authorities to probe its depths; Watkins notes that the physicians âmissed the opportunity of improving their knowledge in the dissection of a Dead body,â but insists that they nevertheless âadvanced their fame by restoring to the world a Living one.â2 Although Watkins praises the physiciansâ medical skill, he glosses over the fact that their reputation is enhanced not through the successful destruction and examination of Greeneâs sexually unruly body (as was originally intended), but by her unexpected survival.
The pamphlets demonstrate the inability of male authority to completely control or definitively interpret womenâs reproductive bodies, as well as the ability of unruly female bodies to undermine male authority. According to Watkins, after Greene revives, the governor and justices find themselves in the awkward position of having to reverse a verdict that appears to conflict with Godâs will: perceiving âthe hand of God in her preservation, and being willing rather to cooperate with divine providence in saving her, then to overstraine justice by condemning her to double shame & sufferings, they were pleasâd to grant her a Repreive.â3 In Burdetâs account, the reversal of the verdict is a matter of âdispute and controversieâ between âa great man,â who wants to see Greene executed a second time, and a group of âhonest Souldiers,â who successfully protest that re-executing Greene would be âcontrary to all right and reasonâ since her recovery had the âgreat hand of God in it.â4 Greeneâs body was supposed to be a passive object that could be broken, opened, explained, and classified by legal and medical authority. Instead, it becomes a catalyst for disagreement between common soldiers and âgreat men,â earthly justices and divine justice. Moreover, in Watkinsâs pamphlet the execution of a lower-class, criminal woman is replaced by the death of the upper-class male legal authority who had condemned her; upon hearing of Greeneâs revival, the âGrand Prosecutor Sir Thomas Readâ (who happens to be the grandfather of the young man with whom Greene had the affair) promptly dies.5 The signifiers that were supposed to define and interpret Greene no longer apply, and Watkins and Burdet must rewrite a tale of sin, punishment, and death as one of innocence, redemption, and resurrection.
In Wonder of Wonders, Greeneâs triumph over sexual, legal, and medical regulation is bolstered by her interpretive control over her body. When her dead child is discovered and Greene is examined by a justice, she âconfessed, that she was guilty of the Act, in committing of the sin [of fornication], but clear and innocent of the crime for murdering of it, for that it was dead born.â6 Forced to submit to male legal authority, Greene nevertheless insists on defining the extent of her reproductive misconduct. Burdetâs pamphlet also includes Greeneâs scaffold speech, in which she insists upon her innocence and her connection with God.7 At the foot of the scaffold, Greene begs God âfor a signal and testification to the world of her innocency,â and it appears that her request is granted when she survives her hanging.8 Lest anyone doubt the miraculous nature of her survival, immediately upon reviving Greene makes another speech in which she interprets her recovery as the sign she wished for prior to her execution: âBehold Gods providence, and his wonder of wonders, which indeed, is a deliverance so remarkable, ... that it cannot be parallelâd ... for the space of 300 years.â She goes on to specifically critique the âMagistrates, and Courts of Judicatureâ who convicted her without the âdue and legal processâ of a trial by jury.9 In Burdetâs account, Greene turns the tables on those who condemned her; her declarations of innocence are upheld by both divine authority and her earthly community (represented by the soldiers who prevent her re-execution). Her accusers, on the other hand, are found guilty of injustice.
Unlike Wonder of Wonders, Newes from the Dead gives very little space or specificity to Greeneâs defense of herself during her trial and execution. Watkins reports that she sings a psalm on the scaffold âand something said in justification of herself,â but he does not reproduce her actual words as Burdet does.10 Critics such as Susan C. Staub and Frances E. Dolan have argued that Watkins strips Greene of physical and discursive self-control by placing her body at the mercy of legal and medical authorities and erasing any record of her voice.11 However, the text does contain traces of her speech, traces that help to shape the revised narrative of her reproductive body. As Greene revives, her ability to speak is frequently noted as a sign of her recovery. At first she seems unable to communicate, but gradually she begins to speak intelligibly and answer questions; Watkins carefully notes that she progresses from âsighing and talking to her selfeâ to âlaugh[ing] ... merrilyâ and âtalk[ing] cheerfully.â12 Greeneâs physical improvement, demonstrated by her ability to speak and the change in her affect, tracks with the rehabilitation of her reputation.
Moreover, both Greeneâs own testimony and that of other women help make sense of her survival, framing it and imbuing it with meaning. Watkins notes the opinion of a midwife that the dead child was so under-developed that it probably had been stillborn. Other servants (most likely women, given their intimate knowledge of Greeneâs body) testify that Greene âhad certaine Issues for about a monthâ prior to the birth, beginning after âshee had violently labourâd in skreening of malt.â13 Watkins uses these accounts of the appearance of the dead child, Greeneâs bodily discharges, and the physical labor she undertook while pregnant as evidence of miscarriage, not infanticide.14 We also learn that Greene herself had âingenuously confessedâ this information during her trial and at her execution, âand the very first words, after shee came to her selfe againe (which certainly were not spoken with designe, or purpose to deceive) confirmed the same.â15 Although Watkins does not reproduce Greeneâs exact words, he does demonstrate how her own story about her miscarriage, bolstered by the testimony of her fellow servants and the midwife, prevails over narratives of her guilt. The consistency and persuasiveness of her own and other womenâs interpretations of her body, as well as her physical resilience, dramatically reverse the social, moral, legal, and medical narratives that male authorities had used to criminalize her.
As Staub points out, Watkins and Burdet differ substantially in how they frame and interpret Greeneâs revived body. While Burdetâs pamphlet offers a critique of a âperverted legal systemâ and a celebration of âdivine providence,â Watkins focuses on âthe scientific aspect of the miracleâ and celebrates the intervention of the physicians more than that of God.16 In addition to this intertextual competition, Watkinsâs pamphlet reveals intratextual uncertainty about Greeneâs body. Within the main narrative, Watkins carefully assembles physical evidence to refute the initial verdict and argue for Greeneâs innocence, but the prefatory poems composed by Oxford students reveal internal interpretive disagreement. While some of the poems presume Greeneâs sexual innocence and even suggest that her revival has restored her virginity, others make sly references to her perceived promiscuity.17 Still others are baffled by a female body that defies easy categorization: âMother, or Maid, I pray you whether? / One, or both, or am I neither?â18 One poet literalizes the difficulty of âreadingâ female morality by comparing women to a foreign language: â[Women] have mysterious wayes, and their designes / Must be read backward still, like Hebrew lines.â19 The strange text of the female body evades the efforts of men to read it, and interpretations proliferate among legal, medical, religious, and literary authorities.20 In the face of this uncertainty, men must rely in part on Greeneâs words and those of other women to interpret her body.
In the chapters that follow, I examine texts in which, as in Newes from the Dead and Wonder of Wonders, womenâs reproductive bodies evade menâs control and understanding, and interpretive authority is heavily contested. I put forward new readings of texts that, like the accounts of Anne Greene, are often interpreted as depicting female bodies as passive objects of male critique and dismissing or erasing female speech. In contrast, I explore the ways women help to construct reproductive knowledge and socio-political identity in the popular print and theater of early modern England. In plays, pamphlets, medical treatises, histories, satires, and ballads, women make reproduction legible through the stories they tell about their bodies and the ways they act these stories out, combining speech and physical performance in what I term âbodily narratives.â By exploiting the interdependence and uncertainty of words and bodies, women produce âtruthsâ about reproduction that are seemingly grounded in concrete corporeal reality, but that are in fact discursively constructed and subject to manipulation, falsification, and change. Moreover, the power of bodily narratives extends beyond stories told about the female body to include the ways that women reshape the patriarchal identities of fathers, husbands, and even kings. In the texts I examine, womenâs bodies, womenâs speech, and in particular womenâs speech about their bodies perform socially constitutive work: constructing legible narratives of lineage and inheritance; making and unmaking political alliances; shaping local economies; and defining/delimiting male socio-political authority in medical, royal, familial, judicial, and economic contexts. My analysis reveals that even seemingly ideologically conservative texts portray womenâs bodily narratives as the basis for somatic âtruths.â Although they often adopt a punitive, critical stance toward women who challenge male authority, these texts also represent women exercising epistemological control over the reproductive processes and rituals through which this authority is constructed and maintained.
1. SOMATIC UNCERTAINTY AND BODILY NARRATIVES
As Gail Kern Paster has vividly demonstrated, early modern men and women experienced the inner workings of their own bodies and those of others as inaccessible, unstable, and unpredictable. The fluctuating interiori...