Destination Marketing

An international perspective

Metin Kozak, Nazmi Kozak

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2015
• ISBN:
  9781317517801
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Business
• Subtopic: Hospitality, Travel & Tourism Industry
• Index: Business

This book advances the current literature on destination marketing by using innovative up-to-date case studies from a wide geographical representation. The contributors examine new methods and marketing approaches used within the field through a combination of theoretical and practical approaches. With discussions of topics including image, branding, attractions and competitiveness, the chapters in this volume offer new insight into contemporary developments such as medical tourism, Islamic tourism and film-induced tourism. Presenting detailed findings and a range of methodologies, ranging from surveys to travel writings and ethnography, this book will be of interest to students, scholars and practitioners in the fields of tourism and marketing.

Part I
Destination image

1
A study of the role of country image in destination image

Yin Teng Chew and Siti Aqilah Binte Jahari

Introduction

Tourism is an industry that is highly driven by images that offer simplified and close representation of the actual destination (MacKay & Fesenmaier, 1997). Images are particularly crucial in determining the viability of the destination (Tasci & Gartner, 2007), tourist behaviours and their decision-making processes in choosing a travel destination (Baloglu & Brinberg, 1997; Chen & Hsu, 2000; Chen & Tsai, 2007). The formation of destination image (DI) is inextricably intertwined with several external factors (familiarity with a destination, previous visitation and socio-demographic factors) (Beerli & Martin, 2004a, 2004b; Baloglu, 1997; Chaudhary, 2000). A key aspect of the DI literature that still remains questionable and highly debated amongst scholars is its conceptualization.

Despite the existence of DI literature over a span of three decades, scholars have yet to arrive at a consensus on the conceptualization of DI constructs (Tasci, Gartner & Cavusgil, 2007). This lack of consensus is due to its multidimensionality characteristics that are defined as complex, multiple, relativistic and dynamic (Gallarza, Gil Saura & Calderon Garcia, 2002). Conventionally, past studies have conceptually and empirically demonstrated cognitive and affective images as a function of DI (Beerli & Martin, 2004a; Baloglu & McCleary, 1999a, 1999b; Tasci & Gartner, 2007) through which the combined interaction of these two constructs yields ‘overall image’ (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999a, 1999b; Beerli & Martin, 2004a, 2004b). Together with conative image (Gartner, 1994), these DI constructs capture the behavioural response of an individual.

Recent research has started to consider country image (CI) as conceptually part of DI. Some scholars attempt to draw parallels with DI (Gertner, 2010; Elliot, Papadopoulos & Kim, 2011; Martin & Eroglu, 1993; Mossberg & Kleppe, 2005; Nadeau, Heslop, O’Reily & Luk, 2008) although CI and DI have independently developed as two separate streams of research in international marketing and tourism. Martínez and Alvarez (2010) empirically revealed that DI and CI are two separate and distinct constructs. Conversely, several scholars concluded that greater integration between product-based CI and DI is required (Elliot et al., 2011; Mossberg & Kleppe, 2005; Nadeau et al., 2008).

Nadeau et al. (2008) and Kim et al. (2007) empirically revealed that perceived stereotypes and beliefs about the country and its people are significant in influencing visitation and recommendation intentions. These findings seem to suggest that there are considerable overlapping ideas between CI and DI. Nadeau et al. (2008) contended that the DI construct is thus far inconclusive as it has neglected several aspects such as the country and its people. He argues that similar perception may be extended to other product information and services (Hong & Wyer, 1989), including tourism. We concur with these scholars as our literature review indicates that DI constructs employed in past research (e.g., Beerli & Martin, 2004a) do not capture values, beliefs and national stereotypes that tourists might perceive about the country’s people.

DI itself still lacks a conceptual framework as to the functions of its various constructs (cognitive, affective, conative, overall) when considered in an integrated model (Fakeye & Crompton, 1991; Mazanec & Schweiger, 1981) although cognitive and affective images are the dominant approach to measuring DI (Pike & Ryan, 2004). For instance, DI has been loosely defined (Fakeye & Crompton, 1991; Mazanec & Schweiger, 1981) as mirrored in several studies which had previously interpreted it as a city (Dadgostar & Isotalo, 1996; Oppermann, 1996), region (Ahmed, 1991; Fakeye & Crompton, 1991) or country (Chon, 1991; Sönmez & Sirakaya, 2002). Others have relied on individual attractions or resorts as the basis of DI (Alhemoud & Armstrong, 1996; Gibson, Qi & Zhang, 2008; Phelps, 1986).

Such a fragmented concept implies that past research seems to recognize non-travel-specific attributes as part of DI. This argument is consistent with Kotler’s (1987) assertion that an association exists between a country’s tourist image and its national image. In short, despite concerted effort by scholars, ascertaining the definition and conceptualization of DI still remains problematic owing to its multifaceted nature (Jenkins, 1999).

Given the inconsistent findings from previous research, this study attempts to empirically examine cognitive and affective images along with CI. By testing several models in a single study, our contributions to the literature are three-fold. First, adopting such a measure elucidates how cognitive and affective images may be studied in relation with CI. Second, while other research only considers a single model, this chapter will empirically examine and suggest the most suitable model for integrating country and destination image in understanding their respective effects on intention to visit. Third, the scale measuring CI will also include factors other than traditional DI that are commonly considered by tourists.

Literature review

Advancement in DI literature in determining its definition over three decades has evolved to encapsulate various features of DI. Most definitions identify two facets of DI, namely cognitive and affective images. Despite concerted effort by scholars, ascertaining the definition and conceptualization of DI still remains problematic owing to its multifaceted nature (Jenkins, 1999). There are several aspects contributing to its multidimensional nature such as one’s exposure to different types of information sources, past travel experience, familiarity, socio-demographics, constraints and motivations (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999a; Beerli & Martin, 2004b, Kim & Chalip, 2004) and in a recent study, perceived destination risk (Chew & Jahari, 2014). Hence, more research is required to explore other factors or dimensions which have not been captured, but may potentially affect DI (Tasci & Gartner, 2007) or be a facet of DI.

A commonality amongst past definitions of DI is the identification of ‘perception’, ‘impressions’, ‘ideas’ and ‘beliefs’ as the accepted alternative expressions used to conceptualize tourist DI. Beyond the typical facets of cognitive and affective images, Echtner and Ritchie (1991) argue that certain aspects of the country that are non-observable prior to actual visitation should be considered as a construct of DI, since a clichéd impression of the destination regardless of accuracy of image could still be formed as a consequence of past knowledge acquired from various non-tourism and non-commercial sources of information such as education, news reports, magazines and books (Gunn, 1972).

To illustrate, various sources of information often feature the Japanese government as highly responsible towards its citizens’ welfare. Japanese are often known for their discipline, kindness and courtesy. These positive images may be retained as a national image of Japan. Some tourists may believe that post-disaster intervention by the Japanese government on the radioactive leakage issue was effective and diligent. With such a perceived image of Japan resulting from images of its people and governance, tourists may feel less deterred by the threat of radioactive leakage in deciding whether to travel to Japan.

Further, while conceptualization of DI has given greater prominence to measuring the tourist destination’s physical and functional attributes, less attention has been directed towards the holistic impression of a destination (Echtner & Ritchie, 1991). The functional construct measuring the tangible and measurable aspects of destinations has been successfully studied (Pike, 2002). However, the much neglected aspect of DI is the holistic impression that refers to the psychological, more abstract and unique features or perception accentuated by the country endowed with tourism destinations.

Existing cognitive image measurement uses some items that seem to feature cognitive image (quality of life, customs and ways of life, friendliness of local people). However, the majority of past studies have predominantly tested ‘friendliness of local people’ as the only psychological attribute. This weakness in capturing the psychological aspects has been lamented by various scholars (Baloglu & Martin, 2004a; Jenkins, 1996; San Martin & Rodríguez del Bosque, 2008). Yet, studies have been conservative in reflecting such inclusion in advancing research, since they have predominantly limited their studies to existing cognitive and affective images of a tourism destination. Hence, a revisit to the image constructs is warranted, as argued by Echtner and Ritchie (1991), to further examine if inclusion of CI enhances the conceptualization of DI to advance theory and practice.

Methodology

The primary aim of this study was to determine the role of CI in relation to DI through analysis of data obtained from an online survey. The target population was Malaysian tourists, while the destination under examination was Japan following the Fukushima disaster. Malaysian tourists were chosen as they were ranked as one of the top 10 international tourists travelling to Japan (JNTO, 2011). Collaboration with organizations such as the Malaysian Travel and Tour Association (MATTA) and the Japan National Tourism Organization (JNTO) was sought for dissemination of the online survey questionnaire.

The survey instrument was adopted from previously established scales for DI (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999a) and intention to visit (Huang & Hsu, 2009). An exception was made for the CI instrument which was developed in congruence with the stereotype definition consisting of cognitive features that reflect country’s people and beliefs. Considering the contextual influence of post-disaster Japan, the CI construct was developed to understand tourists’ perceptions of values, traits and characteristics that Japanese people may adhere to in a homogeneous society.

Questions measuring CI were based on whether tourists believed that Japan, as a country, possesses the ability to maintain its holiday destinations and has good food quality control and civilized and polite people. In contrast, DI was measured using the traditional construct of cognitive and affective image. To measure cognitive image, respondents were asked whether they believed that Japan is able to offer good standards of hygiene and cleanliness, personal safety, beautiful scenery and attractions. Likewise, affective image was captured by measuring respondents’ feelings towards Japan as a holiday destination.

A total of 298 responses were collected of which 286 were retained after data cleaning for current analysis. This study employed statistical software such as SPSS to output descriptive statistics and AMOS to run structural equation modelling. The KMO–Bartlett’s test of sample adequacy value of 0.926 indicated that the sample size was sufficient. All constructs achieved satisfactory reliability, exceeding the minimum threshold level of 0.70 as recommended by Bagozzi and Yi (1988). The discriminant validity was also satisfied when the squared correlation of any pair of latent variables was less than the average variance extracted of the two paired variables (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). Convergent validity was also achieved in this study when the average variance extracted for all latent variables exceeded 0.5 (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988).

Findings

The variation in conceptualizing CI and DI inevitably produces mixed results and an inconclusive understanding of DI. To unlock the black box of DI conceptualization, future study should disentangle the concepts by testing out various models in a single study (see Figures 1.1–1.3) as such a study carries important theoretical and practical contributions. This study intended to examine CI as a moderator. However, since the reported ratings of the study sample had a small number of respondents with sharp differences in ratings, the moderation model could not be examined. The findings of this study suggest that CI plays a more prominent role as a predictor over mediator.

Figure 1.1 Country image as an additional facet of destination image.

Figure 1.2 Country image as a mediator.

Figure 1.3 Country image as a predictor of destination image.

In line with Echtner and Ritchie’s (1993) suggestion on holistic representation of DI, the first model proposes CI as the third dimension of DI, in addition to the conventional cognitive and affective image (Figure 1.1). The model assumes that tourists may revert to cliché perceptions of CI which contribute to the overall evaluation of destination, thus expressing their intention to visit. Based on empirical testing, this model highlights the nature of CI as being indeed a part of DI given the model fit. However, fit ...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Half Title page
• Routledge Advances in Tourism
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Figures
• Tables
• Contributors
• Introduction
• Part I Destination image
• 1 A study of the role of country image in destination image
• 2 Lake-destination image attributes A neural network content analysis
• 3 Literature creation of the tourist imaginary
• 4 Travel writings and destination image
• 5 Affective component of the destination image A computerised analysis
• Part II Destination branding
• 6 Shaping collaboration in tourism Thuggery in a destination branding process
• 7 Revealing internal stakeholders' perceptions of developing ‘Brand Alexandria'
• 8 Rebranding components towards developing a tourism destination
• 9 Analysing destination readiness for branding A case study of Croatia
• Part III Supporting elements of destinations
• 10 Exploring film-induced tourism Implications for on-site heritage interpretation
• 11 Ançã stone in the building of a tourist destination
• 12 Identifying research gaps in medical tourism
• 13 Destination experience for Middle East tourists
• Part IV Models of destination marketing and competitiveness
• 14 A study on the flow experience relationship model of gaming activity
• 15 A review of life cycle models by Plog and Butler from a marketing perspective
• 16 A new tourism map for Dubai's top source market
• 17 Innovative system indicators for Islamic tourism using C-PEST factors
• 18 Competitiveness of tourist destinations and Brazilian strategy
• Index