Intergroup Misunderstandings

Impact of Divergent Social Realities

Stephanie Demoulin, Jacques-Philippe Leyens, John F Dovidio

• Publisher: Psychology Press
• Year: 2013
• ISBN:
  9781136950988
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: History & Theory in Psychology
• Index: Psychology

The objectives of the volume are to direct the field's attention to the unique value of studying interactions between members of different groups and to offer the most up-to-date summaries of prominent and cutting-edge scholarship on this topic written by leading scholars in the field.

A central theme of the volume is that improvement in intergroup relationships will only be possible if social scientists simultaneously take into account both the attitudes, beliefs, emotions, and actions of the different groups that shape the nature of intergroup relations. Understanding how members of different groups interact is critical beyond the value of understanding how majority groups behave and how minority groups respond in isolation. Indeed, as the book exemplifies, groups interpret their interaction differently, experiencing different social realities; approach interactions with different goals; and engage each other with different, and often non-compatible, means or strategies. These different realities, goals, and strategies can produce misunderstanding, suspicion, and conflict even when initial intentions are positive and cooperative.

The book will be of interest to professionals and students in social psychology, sociology, social work, education, political science, and conflict management, as well as scholars, students, and practitioners interested in anti-bias education and prejudice reduction techniques and strategies.

1

Intergroup Misunderstandings: Interactions and Divergences in Realities, Goals, and Strategies

STÉPHANIE DEMOULIN, JACQUES-PHILIPPE
LEYENS and JOHN F. DOVIDIO

CONTENTS

The Dynamics of Intergroup Interactions

Intergroup Misunderstandings

Organization of the Volume and Chapter Overviews

Overarching Phenomena

Differences in Social Realities

Differences in Goals

Differences in Strategies

Final Thoughts

References

The road to hell is paved with good intentions.

—Saint Bernard of Clairvaux (1091–1153)

Racism, sexism, and many other -isms are a form of hell. They deprive their victims not only of their freedom but also of their humanity. This is the reason why so many scholars from a large variety of scientific disciplines have devoted great effort, time, money, and research to better understand these phenomena and develop intervention programs to eradicate these biases. It is often tempting to believe that bad derives from evil and that positive consequences follow directly and inevitably from good intentions. But is it really the case? To take but one example, does racism necessarily entail wickedness and malevolence? Is the willingness to do or to be good among dominant group members sufficient to alleviate bias in intergroup interactions and discrimination in society?

This volume focuses on these issues. The tradition of research on prejudice and discrimination has tended for many years to concentrate separately on dominant (majority) groups and subordinate (minority) groups in the conceptual analysis of -isms. However, the field now more commonly and actively considers the interaction of members of these groups as a whole of which parts cannot be studied and fully understood independently of one another. To truly understand intergroup relations, studying these interactions is essential.

In addition to placing interactions at the center of research attention, some scholars have also become interested in examining intergroup relations in groups that are not inevitably in open conflict with one another, in group members that do not consider themselves as outright enemies. That is, increased attention has been devoted in social psychology to “normal,” day-to-day intergroup interactions. The general picture that seems to emerge from this approach is that, despite widespread social norms of nondiscrimination and despite even sincere personal endorsement of ideologies of equality, intergroup interactions continue to remain problematic for both majority and minority group members. Intergroup interaction is reminiscent of the Tower of Babel, in which people's attempts to communicate are hindered by having different languages. Although intentions may be good, misunderstandings result. What we and all the other authors in this volume argue is that a significant part of the difficulty in achieving intergroup harmony is recurring misunderstandings at several different stages of the intergroup interaction.

In this introductory chapter, first we stress the importance of concentrating on interactions as a whole rather than on interaction partners separately when studying relations between groups of equal or of different status. Second, we emphasize the critical, but traditionally understudied, role of intergroup misunderstandings in the emergence of intergroup conflict and disharmony. Third, we present the general structure of the book and the subsections. Finally, we outline the different chapters that appear in this volume.

THE DYNAMICS OF INTERGROUP INTERACTIONS

For decades, social psychologists have been concerned with intergroup conflict and strife and have extensively examined fundamental intergroup processes, studied prejudice and discrimination, and explored approaches for improving intergroup relations. Traditionally, most of this work focused on the understanding of the biases of members of majority, advantaged, or high-status groups. Recently, however, researchers have increasingly attempted to consider the important point of view of members of minority, disadvantaged, and low-status groups (Crocker, Major, & Steele, 1998; Swim & Stangor, 1998).

Despite the growing interest in the social psychology of prejudice and victimization of bias, research encompassing both of these components of intergroup relations and their dynamic relationship have received relatively little empirical and theoretical attention. Very few studies have investigated the different perspectives and realities of high- and low-status (or advantaged vs. disadvantaged, or majority vs. minority) groups in the same context, and particularly in the same interaction. Of the over 500 papers reviewed in Pettigrew and Tropp's (2006) exhaustive meta-analysis of the intergroup contact literature, very few papers directly studied such interactions. Seventy-two percent of the studies involved only the responses of majority group members, and 20% included only the reactions of minority group members. Just 8% examined the responses of majority and minority group members within the same situation. Devine and Vasquez (1998) observed that “the literature has had very little to offer to help us understand the nature of the interpersonal dynamics of intergroup contact … We have not yet examined carefully and fully the nature of interpersonal dynamics that emerge between majority and minority group members when they are brought together in a specific interpersonal situation. In other words, we do not knowwhat happens when interaction begins” (pp. 240–241). Almost a decade later, only limited progress has been made in this direction. More recently, Jackman (2005, p. 102) commented: “First, there should be more attention to the exchange of attitudes between dominant and subordinate groups, instead of treating the former as unilateral actors. Second, the dynamic nature of intergroup attitudes calls for investigation” (see also Hebl & Dovidio, 2005).

The fundamental goal of this volume is thus to direct the field's attention to the unique value of studying interactions between members of different groups and to offer the most up-to-date summaries of prominent and cutting-edge scholarship on this topic. A central theme is that improvement in intergroup relationships will only be possible if social scientists simultaneously take into account the attitudes, beliefs, emotions, and actions of the different groups, which shape the nature of intergroup relations. By understanding these interactive processes, intergroup misunderstandings can be avoided, and accurate and open communication can form the foundation for constructive intergroup relations into the future.

INTERGROUP MISUNDERSTANDINGS

Misunderstandings associated with group memberships and perspectives characterize intergroup relations even for groups that interact regularly and are mutually interdependent. Here is an example of what can be found on the society and culture subsection of an Internet forum:

I was raised to open doors for women, open the car door (if I'm driving). I always pump the gas at the gas station. This I've always thought was good manners. But more and more over the years I've been at the receiving end of extremely nasty comments by women who accuse me of being ‘a sexist pig’… Most of the women in my life tell me they appreciate it and would consider it rude of me not to do this. So I'm confused because I'm either rude or a sexist pig no matter what I do… . Please tell me (and all men) what we are supposed to do.¹

As amusing as it may appear at first glance, this quotation exemplifies the kinds of confusions that group members frequently face when they have to interact with members of other groups. How should one behave according to current social norms? How are behaviors interpreted as a function of the interacting partner's group membership? What is right and what is wrong? For the record, out of the 30 responses this “gentleman” received to his question, only three were written by men. Moreover, all 30 people who responded agreed that he should keep on opening doors for women. Only a few commented that he should do so only to the extent that it is not meant as a protective or as a “demeaning” behavior, and that he should himself accept that a woman opening a door for him is equally appropriate.

This excerpt also nicely illustrates a fundamental issue that is central to recognizing and resolving intergroup misunderstanding. When groups bring different perspectives and social realities to their interactions, confusions may occur about whether an action—even as discreet as opening a door for another person—is discriminatory. Those who engage in the behavior and those who are objects of the action may assume different motives and objectives. As nicely pointed out by Kessler and Mummendey in this volume, one of the most basic steps needed to address intergroup misunderstandings is to develop a common definition of social discrimination. Is any intergroup differentiation to be understood as social discrimination, or should we consider that social discrimination has to be reserved to those cases where intergroup differentiation is perceived as illegitimate? If the latter is true, then who is to define what is legitimate and what is not? Finally, what if groups do not agree on perceived legitimacy of a given behavior? What is the impact on intergroup relations when groups do not share a common perspective about whether an action represents discriminatory behavior? And this is only but one example of the kind of intergroup misunderstandings that are pervasive within and between societies. We now turn to the content of this volume and how we structured the approach of such misunderstandings.

ORGANIZATION OF THE VOLUME AND CHAPTER OVERVIEWS

The volume is organized into four parts, as illustrated in Figure 1.1. An initial set of chapters offers a basic picture of the current stage of affairs in intergroup relations research, identifying general processes that are critical for understanding intergroup relations. These chapters address broad topics, including prejudice, immigration, stereotypes, and emotions. After these foundational chapters, the volume is structured around three main themes, each representing an aspect of intergroup dynamics that determines different perspectives and orientations in intergroup relations. These themes reflect different types and layers of intergroup

Figure 1.1 Organization of the volume.

misunderstandings. These themes relate to (a) subjective realities, (b) intergroup goals, and (c) intergroup strategies. In particular, we propose that groups interpret their interaction differently, experiencing different social realities, approach interactions with different goals, and engage each other with different, and often noncompatible, means or strategies.

These different realities, goals, and strategies can produce misunderstanding, suspicion, and conflict even when initial intentions are positive and cooperative. Thus, understanding how members of different groups interact is critical beyond the value of understanding how majority groups behave and how minority groups respond in isolation. Moreover, the study of intergroup interactions can elucidate the reciprocal influences of intergroup processes and interpersonal interactions, a topic that has received only limited theoretical and empirical attention to date.

OVERARCHING PHENOMENA

The first part of the volume reviews general phenomena that constitute the background for more specific topics, which will be dealt with in later chapters. These phenomena have to do with broad social phenomena that frame encounters between members of different groups, often having a different status. These interactions crystallize expectations, perceptions, and behaviors that are likely to contribute to misunderstandings. Very often, these interactions are embedded in more global settings such as when immigrants and host societies have to elect strategies to cope with one another. In both informal encounters and cultural exchanges, people cannot avoid making generalizations about others and having expectations about the image they are giving. Stereotypes and meta-stereotypes are the seeds of intergroup misunderstandings. Finally, when people meet, they do not only think, speak, and behave, but also express emotions. These emotions, which are typically conveyed nonverbally, communicate vast amounts of information, which, in turn, guide interaction, stereotypes, and meta-stereotypes.

The chapter “Prejudice and Intergroup Interaction” by J. Nicole Shelton, John F. Dovidio, Michelle Hebl, and Jennifer A. Richeson is filled with examples of how before, during, and after actual intergroup encounters, minority and majority group members diverge in their interpretations of the interaction. The authors base their analysis on Hebl and Dovidio's (2005) model of mixed social interactions. This model considers the reciprocal responses of minority and majority group members and sheds light on the various types of misunderstandings that are susceptible to appear in the sequential phases of the interaction.

Shelton and colleagues first introduce the history of interracial relations in the United States to show that whereas overt expressions of racial stereotypes and prejudice have declined substantially, more subtle expressions of biases still persist, giving rise to what has been called aversive racism. Second, they explore how historical events and psychological processes combine to produce intergroup misunderstandings in interracial encounters. The large spectrum covered by Hebl and Dovidio's model allows the authors not only to consider misunderstandings in the interaction phase but also to take into account potential misunderstandings that occur before and after the interaction. The authors review a large body of research that has documented the misinterpretations and misunderstandings members of both minority and majority groups face. For instance, although members of the two groups tend to avoid intergroup interactions because of the fear of being rejected by the other group, both types of individuals interpret the avoidance displayed by outgroup members as a sign of lack of interest.

Although the general message of Shelton and colleagues could appear quite pessimistic, these authors conclude their chapter by stressing a number of possible strategies individuals, in general, and researchers interested in the domain of intergroup intervention could adopt in order to reduce and allay the misunderstandings raised by intergroup encounters.

The next chapter of this volume, “Acculturation and Immigrant-Host Community Relations in Multicultural Settings” by Richard Y. Bourhis, Annie Montreuil, Geneviève Barrette, and Elisa Montaruli, examines the specific case of majority-minority interactions in immigration contexts. These authors propose a theoretical framework, the Interactive Acculturation Model, to account for immigrant/host relations. Whereas traditional acculturation research has focused mainly on the acculturation strategies of immigrant minorities, the Interactive Acculturation Model incorporates within its approach the adoption of acculturation strategies by both immigrant minorities and host majorities. Moreover, the authors point out that the relationship between immigrant minorities and host majorities may be unstable because, depending on political or economic events occurring at the national and international levels, state integration policies can shift from one ideological orientation to the other.

Bourhis and colleagues advance the idea that in order to understand intergroup relationships within a society one needs to take into account the perspective of both hosts and immigrants, as well as public policies of minorities' integration. Integration policies are said to create an intergroup climate that influences the specific acculturation strategies chosen by the different cultural groups that compose the society. In addition, Bourhis et al. further speculate that the emergence of intergroup misunderstandings will depend on the degree of concordance or discordance between the acculturation strategies pursued by immigrant groups and the ones host communities would like them to follow. In a series of cross-cultural studies, Bourhis and colleagues test the Interactive Acculturation Model in societies with divergent integration policies and stress how acculturation orientation discordance is a critical determinant of intergroup misunderstandings. Bourhis and colleagues further speculate that, in part because acculturation orientations are acquired early in life, these orientations are more strongly and deeply embedded cognitively and emotionally than are intergroup attitudes, and thus they will tend to be more predictive of actual interethnic behaviors.

In the chapter “How Do They See Us? The Vicissitudes of Metaperception in Intergroup Relations,” Vincent Y. Yzerbyt, Charles M. Judd, and Dominique Muller explore the extent to which intergroup beliefs, in general, and attributed beliefs, in particular, play a role in the emergence of intergroup misunderstandings. Intergroup beliefs, which are what people think of “others,” have been largely studied in the social psychology of stereotypes and have been shown to profoundly impact people's orientations toward members of other groups. Only recently have researchers started to show interest in the beliefs that both types of groups hold about other groups in their environment. Even more scarce are studies concerning another set of intergroup beliefs, namely meta-stereotypes. Meta-stereotypes are the beliefs that people have about how other members of other groups see them.

Yzerbyt and colleagues pursue three goals in their chapter. First, these authors argue for the utilization of full ingroup—outgroup designs (Judd & Park, 1993) in the examination of intergroup beliefs, and they draw attention to the importance of investigating the stereotypes held both by dominant and dominated groups simultaneously. Second, they propose that stereotypes are not the only set of beliefs that impact intergroup interactions; meta-stereotypes are also clear determinants of people's behaviors. In particular, Yzerby...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Half Title Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Contents
• Preface
• Editors
• Contributors
• 1 Intergroup Misunderstandings: Interactions and Divergences in Realities, Goals, and Strategies
• Part I Overarching Phenomena
• Part III Differences in Goals
• Part IV Differences in Strategies
• Index