Knowledge Networks and Tourism

Michelle McLeod, Roger Vaughan

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2014
• ISBN:
  9781135036010
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Business
• Subtopic: Service Industry
• Index: Business

The receipt of knowledge is a key ingredient by which the tourism sector can adjust and adapt to its dynamic environment. However although its importance has long been recognised the fragmentation within the sector, largely as a result of it being comprised of small and medium sized businesses, makes understanding knowledge management challenging.

This book applies knowledge management and social network theories to the business of tourism to shed light on successful operations of tourism knowledge networks. It contributes specifically to understanding a network perspective of the tourism sector, the information needs of tourism businesses, social network dynamics of tourism business operation, knowledge flows within the tourism sector and the transformation of the tourism sector through knowledge networks. Social Network Analysis is applied to fully explore the growth and maintenance of tourism knowledge networks and the relationships between tourism sector stakeholders in relation to their knowledge requirements.

Knowledge Networks and Tourism will be valuable reading for all those interested in successful operations of tourism knowledge networks.

1 Introduction

Michelle McLeod and Roger Vaughan

Background

The main purpose of this book is to consider the topic of knowledge networks in the tourism sector, and in that regard tourism network characteristics, the dynamics of knowledge and methodological considerations are outlined. This topic is important to the tourism sector as the fragmentation of businesses within the sector largely as a result of the sector being comprised of small and medium sized businesses, makes understanding knowledge management challenging (Cooper 2006). A contribution is made to the forming of a knowledge network perspective which can add value to the understanding of the knowledge dynamics across business and organizational boundaries within the tourism and hospitality industries. The inter-business and inter-organizational contexts are important as these have received limited attention in the knowledge management literature (Santoro, Borges and Rezende 2006). Knowledge aids in transforming the tourism sector as businesses within the sector adjust and adapt their business operations to changes in the dynamic tourism system. It has long been recognized that application of relevant knowledge is an element of competitiveness but there are challenges with understanding the workings of knowledge in an industry such as tourism (Cooper 2006). In this regard, this book seeks to integrate knowledge management and social network theories to the understanding of knowledge dynamics in the tourism sector. The main themes within this book are: tourism networks, knowledge and knowledge sharing, and application of social network theory and analysis. The book therefore aims to bring to the forefront an emerging field in the tourism literature.

Knowledge, knowledge management and knowledge networks

Generally, the term knowledge has been widely used to indicate a resource (Badaracco 1991) and this knowledge resource is comprised in a hierarchy from data, information and then knowledge (Skyrme 1999). Broadly, there are two forms of knowledge: a tacit form which is largely personal and as such it is private to an individual, and an explicit form which is largely documented and hence this form can be easily shared particularly if it is digitized. Knowledge sharing occurs when knowledge resources move from one individual to another in either a tacit or an explicit form (Awad and Ghaziri 2004; Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). This knowledge resource is then transformed when shared knowledge is converted into a form that may be useful to the receivers of that knowledge resource and therefore it is a widely held view that as a result the holder of the knowledge has an advantage (Prusak 1996). While explicit information sharing is perhaps the more normal process, since this type of sharing is often diffused through documentation and digitalization processes, there is also a need to understand the diffusion of tacit knowledge since this form of knowledge may not be readily shared (Nonaka 1998).

Knowledge management is a relatively new area of study (Easterby-Smith and Lyles 2003) and there is a question as to whether knowledge resources can be managed particularly since the knowledge possessed by an individual becomes immeasurable. As Polanyi (1966: 4) suggested ‘… we can know more than we can tell’. Wilson (2002) noted that the nature of knowledge is such that it cannot be managed but data and information can be managed. Conversely, Carlsson (2003) pointed out that knowledge can be managed through several stages including creation, organization, storage/retrieval, transfer and applications. Broadly managing knowledge involves three stages. First, knowledge has to be generated or as Nonaka (1998) prefers, knowledge generation is viewed as knowledge creation. Knowledge creation can be understood using a model in which knowledge is converted from tacit and explicit forms through four processes of socialization, externalization, combination and internalization (SECI) (Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995). Nonaka and Toyama (2003) have since revisited the SECI model to consider the individual, group, organizational and environmental dynamics of knowledge creation and these are important to the understanding of the knowledge creation processes. Gourlay (2006) identified flaws in the SECI model including its suggestion that knowledge creation (meaning new) starts with socialization when internalization can result in the creation of new knowledge. Then, how knowledge is internalized becomes as important as socialization for knowledge creation to occur. Second, generated knowledge, once captured or acquired, can be stored using both human and non-human means. The form of storage is important since knowledge needs to be stored for other uses (Rogers 2003). There are also concerns about knowledge acquisition in a sustained manner (Bennett 1998; Cooper 2006). Hence the reason that the management of knowledge should not be left to chance, but knowledge management is necessary both from creation to dissemination (Blumentritt and Johnston 1999). The third stage is application in which stored knowledge is retrieved and applied to decision making and problem solving and there is a suggestion that absorptive capacity (Cohen and Levinthal 1990) is particularly important for the success of this third stage.

Knowledge resources are generated within knowledge spaces and this generation is comprised of diffusion processes (Boisot 1998). An environment which improves the generation of knowledge resources can improve the capability of the beneficiaries of that knowledge to innovate and create new knowledge. Knowledge is a stimulus that can transform the tourism system as knowledge flows create knowledgeable agents. Herein lies the knowledge advantage created through networks between organizations since knowledge is made available through inter-organizational relationships and networks (Carlsson 2003). Inter-organizational networks are knowledge spaces wherein the network becomes both the generator and creator of knowledge and meaning. Within knowledge spaces, knowledge workers (Davenport and Prusak 1998) become specialists based on the knowledge content that they become subsumed in. Those knowledge workers engage with knowledge transformation processes which are either a codification process or an abstraction process (Boisot 1998). The codification process converts that knowledge and the abstraction process provides understanding or meaning of that knowledge. These knowledge transformation processes are important since the codification process is time constrained, the abstraction process can be influenced by prior knowledge and absorptive capacity, and the diffusion of knowledge is influenced by the speed of the codification and abstraction processes (Boisot 1998; Cohen and Levinthal 1990).

Knowledge can be stored in and retrieved from both human and non-human subjects and items respectively and the storage mechanism is important since it can affect the speed at which knowledge can be retrieved for present and/or future use. For example, explicit knowledge is readily diffused using digitized forms of media (Alavi and Tiwana 2003), however, the diffusion of tacit knowledge takes on different forms. Tacit knowledge diffusion requires particular consideration since it is the tacit knowledge form which gives the ideal competitive advantage (Chakravarthy, McEvily, Doz and Rau 2003; Grant 1996). Also, it is suggested that tacit knowledge in particular allows knowledge to be applied from one context to another (Polanyi 1966), and for strategic deliberations and decision making (Bennett 1998). Therefore it is important to understand the circumstances under which tacit knowledge can be stored and retrieved and these activities predominantly involve social processes (Yang and Farn 2009).

The application of knowledge is important for the receipt of some benefit from diffused knowledge resources. Knowledge resources have certain meaningfulness to the receiver of the knowledge resources and this has been referred to as ‘sense-making’ (Choo 1998) which involves the application of tacit knowledge to understand the business environment to learn and innovate. Similarly, Davenport and Prusak (1998) noted that knowledge is framed through insight and interpretation, two processes which create meaning. The ability to interpret knowledge is important for both the absorption and use of knowledge and this has been termed ‘absorptive capacity’ (Cohen and Levinthal 1990). Carlsson (2003) noted an important distinction between potential and realized absorptive capacities and these are relative to not only the acquisition of knowledge but also to the assimilation and transformation of that knowledge.

Given the challenges of understanding the knowledge concept and its management, a knowledge network perspective has emerged as one of the ways in which the diffusion of knowledge can be understood. A knowledge network has certain boundaries within which a defined system has been created, and which utilizes local, technical and other knowledge resources to the benefit of those network participants. Herein lies the contribution of a knowledge network perspective to explain knowledge management within the tourism sector. A knowledge network can be viewed as the inter-connections between individuals through which knowledge resources can potentially flow. Therefore, this book focuses on the new theoretical perspectives and methodological techniques that are being developed to understand network structures and the flows of knowledge within these network structures. The network becomes a mechanism for knowledge transfer and sharing and therefore by applying network concepts to the study of the diffusion of tourism knowledge the characteristics of the tourism system including the transformation of that system can be explained (Pavlovich 2014). Once the knowledge dynamics can be understood, and the contribution that knowledge makes to the tourism sector, then a new knowledge management model which addresses specifically the peculiarities of the tourism sector can burgeon. As a result, a new perspective on the strategic operation of tourism and hospitality businesses comes to the forefront of tourism practice and academic research and this is the contribution that this book makes to the tourism literature.

Structure of book

This book comprises eleven chapters including this introduction and a conclusion. This introduction, Chapter 1, considers the nature of knowledge and the need for the perspective(s) taken by the papers within it, to understand networks in tourism. It presents the view that managing knowledge resources in the tourism and hospitality industries involves an open knowledge management model. The first section, chapters 2, 3 and 4, relates to understanding tourism networks and characterizes tourism networks and the dynamics of knowledge resources in tourism. The second section, chapters 5, 6 and 7, considers knowledge management in the tourism sector using an explanation of knowledge management approaches, examining the influences of social interaction on knowledge sharing and categorizing tourism knowledge diffusion between the various tourism industry stakeholders. The final section, chapters 8, 9 and 10, provides consideration of the methodological approaches of network analysis which can provide a mechanism for understanding knowledge networks in the tourism sector. For this section the network paradigm is initially outlined and the data collection and data analysis requirements follow this. This book is then concluded in Chapter 11 by highlighting the contributions and implications of this book to the understanding of knowledge networks and tourism. Future research considerations are also outlined.

Chapter 2 by Dianne Dredge explores the nature of tourism networks and the role of knowledge resources in tourism policy and planning networks based on a case study of the Next Generation Tourism Handbook (Queensland, Australia). The approach to the chapter is an introspection of her own experience as an academic working along with tourism industry stakeholders and by her positioning, she proposes that the knowledge dynamics of tourism-planning networks can be understood based on the context, network agents, network boundaries and network resources. She suggests that tourism networks mediate, facilitate and reproduce knowledge for their own purposes. This chapter is particularly important to the understanding of knowledge networks in the tourism sector since tourism policy and land use planning networks operate in very different knowledge domains or spheres and therefore there are challenges to integrate diverse perspectives and knowledge bases and overcome single-minded perspectives in a particular knowledge domain so that a goal of integrated tourism planning can be achieved.

Chapter 3 by Flemming Sørensen and Lars Fuglsang reports on the knowledge dynamics of small tourism companies and proposes an inter-relationship between network structures, knowledge distribution and innovation opportunities. They propose two perspectives. First, a dialetic relationship between the dynamics of networks, knowledge flows and innovation opportunities and, second, the diversity of network configurations of small tourism companies makes the understanding of optimal innovation conditions difficult. Using a case study approach of small tourism companies within the same geographic area in Denmark the authors propose four tourism network conditions based on a two-dimensional matrix, with axes of local versus non-local and loose and open versus strong and cohesive networks, and these configurations are used to explain tourism knowledge network dynamics. The contribution of the chapter relates to the understanding of the dynamics which can build networks in tourism destinations and allow these tourism networks to benefit from innovation opportunities, which exist within the tourism industry.

Chapter 4 by Gareth Shaw considers the main issues relating to knowledge transfer within the tourism and hospitality industries including both public and private sector tourism organizations. Using a framework of the characteristics of tourism networks and the forms of these networks, including business clusters and communities of practice, the chapter addresses the neglected issue of absorptive capacities of organisations within the body of work relating to knowledge transfer mechanisms. A main highlight of the chapter is its focus on knowledge as a resource for open innovation using ideas from Service-Dominant Logic.

Chapter 5 by Chris Cooper sets the basis for understanding knowledge management in the tourism sector. The chapter clarifies the nature of knowledge resources and provides a model for knowledge management in tourism. It is argued that there is a need for rethinking knowledge management for tourism since the single organization level focus is limited and for this it is proposed that there be a micro-level network within organizations as demand-side knowledge creation and a macro-level inter-organizational network as the supply-side where knowledge resources are disseminated. The knowledge management model presented for tourism involves: understanding knowledge stocks through tourism knowledge mapping, tourism knowledge capture, tourism knowledge codification, and determining knowledge flows and transfers. He notes that a knowledge management perspective is still slowly being embraced in tourism and that a network approach can provide insights on knowledge within tourism destinations.

Chapter 6 by Michelle McLeod, Roger Vaughan and Jonathan Edwards considers the social interaction influences on knowledge sharing in the tourism and hospitality industries. While there is a general idea that social interaction is a mechanism for knowledge sharing the conditions under which knowledge sharing is facilitated or not facilitated in an inter-business context require clarification. Knowledge sharing activities are influenced by certain factors including the dimensions of social capital benefits, knowledge sharing practices, trust and social identity. Data were collected from owners and managers of tourism and hospitality businesses in the Bournemouth, Poole and Christchurch conurbation, South England and Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was conducted on several variables to explain knowledge sharing activities in the tourism sector. The main contribution of this chapter is an illumination of the social processes that influence the spread of knowledge resources within a tourism destination.

Chapter 7 by Noel Scott and Adao Flores highlights the role of tourism stakeholder networks in the management of tourism knowledge resources in a tourism destination. It is proposed that social networks are a m...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• List of figures
• List of tables
• Notes on contributors
• Acknowledgement
• 1 Introduction
• 2 Tourism-planning network knowledge dynamics
• 3 Social network dynamics and innovation in small tourism companies
• 4 Tourism networks, knowledge dynamics and co-creation
• 5 Managing tourism knowledge: concepts and approaches
• 6 Socially based inter-business knowledge sharing: a case example
• 7 Diffusion of tourism knowledge through stakeholder networks
• 8 Knowledge management and diffusion: the network paradigm
• 9 Data collection for social network analysis in tourism research
• 10 Analysing inter-business knowledge sharing in the tourism sector
• 11 Conclusion
• Index