Part I
Introduction: Ambi-Diegetic Music in Motion Pictures
1 | The Role of Ambi-Diegetic Film Music in the Product Design of Hollywood Movies Macromarketing in La-La-Land |
As detailed in the Preface and despite the obvious importance of film music to (macro)marketing-related questions about designing a popular form of entertainment, sometimes with aspirations to the stature of artistic creation, the use of music in motion pictures has inspired only a smattering of serious scholarly attentionâthough the occasional anthology has slowly begun to appear, often enough to suggest that this area of inquiry enjoys growing vitality. Studies of the film musical are even more sparseâagain, with a few scattered collections beginning to emerge. And work on our particular area of interestânamely, jazz in filmsâremains scarcer than teenagers at a Benny Goodman memorial concert.
Among the few who have studied aspects of product design related to film music, most have devoted primary attention to the classic Hollywood musical score intended to reinforce the dramatic development of plot and character while remaining largely in the background without attracting the conscious awareness of the movie audience. For example, borrowing from the tradition of Nineteenth Century Romantic music (Wagner in particular), a leitmotif (that is, a short musical phrase) might be associated with a particular narrative object (character, setting, theme, or event) in such a way that playing that motivic phrase might serve to indicate the presence or immanence of the relevant referent while altering the phrase might signal changes in its meaning (e.g., Adorno and Eisler 2003, p. 27; Altman 2007, p. 219; Brown 1994, p. 98; Karlin 1994, p. 73; Neumeyer and Buhler 2001, p. 28; Prendergast 1992, pp. 40, 73, 232).
Such uses of externally-generated music as part of a filmâs background score are considered nondiegetic. By contrast, those uses in which internallygenerated music is foregrounded as part of the on-screen action are diegetic in nature. Before proceeding, these terms deserve a bit of clarification.
Conventional Wisdom on Diegetic and Nondiegetic Music in Motion Pictures
The noun diegesis and the adjective diegetic fail to appear in my Merriam-Websterâs Collegiate Dictionary and, I would assume, are therefore likely to fall outside the purview of the typical (macro)marketing-oriented reader. Bordwell (1985) traces the term diegesis back to Platoâs Republic whereâin a usage retained by Aristotle in the Poeticsâit referred to âa story or narrationâ (Gabbard 1996, p. 300). As described by Gorbman (1987), the term diegesis had its murky reawakening within the context of film criticism in work by the French filmologues during the 1950s. Thus, in some rather obscure publications that we wonât be finding at our local Barnes & Noble, GĂŠrard Genette defined diegesis as âthe spatiotemporal universe referred to by the primary narrationâ (quoted by Gorbman 1987, pp. 20â21), while Etienne Souriau offered a definition of diegesis, diegetic as âall that belongs, âby inference,â to the narrated story, to the world supposed or proposed by the filmâs fictionâ (Gorbman 1987, p. 21). Picking up the definition proposed by Souriau, Metz (1974) regarded diegesis as âthe denotative material of a filmâ (p. xi) or, expanding a bit, as âthe narration itself, but also the ⌠characters, the landscapes, the events, and other narrative elements, in so far as they are considered in their denoted aspectâ (p. 98). In his book on How to Read a Film, Monaco (1981) preserves this connection between diegesis and denotation (p. 144). To this, Gorbman (1987) adds her own definition of diegesis as the ânarratively implied spatiotemporal world of the actions and charactersâ (p. 21). Drawing on the work of Burch (1979), Tan (1996) conceptualizes the diegetic effect as âthe illusion of being present in the fictional worldâ or, in Burchâs terms, the âexperience of the fictional world as the environmentâ (p. 52) where âthe events appear to be real, concrete, and taking place in the here and nowâ (p. 53). With respect to the soundtrack, as explained by Gabbard (1996), âdiegetic sound refers to what the characters might actually hearâ (p. 300).
By common agreement, diegetic musicâalso called source musicâis produced within the film as part of the on-screen action or mise-en-scène (even if the music itself comes from off-screen but is still audible to the on-screen characters). As defined by Gorbman (1987), âDiegetic musicâ is âmusic that (apparently) issues from a source within the narrativeâ (p. 22). Referring to this âdistinction that has long been notedâ in the applications of such names as âdiegetic,â âactual,â and âobjective,â Chion (1994) proposes the term screen music to designate âmusic arising from a source located directly in the space and time of the action, even if this source is a radio or an offscreen musicianâ (p. 80). Such music attracts the attention of the viewer and serves to reinforce the realism of a particular scene or to establish the ambience of a settingâmuch in the manner of costumes, dĂŠcor, scenery, landscaping, or other props. Thus, if a character switches on a radio, we will most likely hear a piece of pop music. If the two young lovers attend a fancy dress ball, they will whirl to the sounds of a waltz played by the dance orchestra. If the heroineâs kid brother joins a grunge band, we will experience its unsavory sounds when she opens the garage door. According to the critical consensus, such diegetic uses of music in film enhance the verisimilitude of the mise-en-scèneâaugmenting its realistic depiction without adding much to the filmâs depth of meaning, narrative significance, connotative richness, or dramatic development.
By contrast, nondiegetic musicâor background musicâis produced from outside the film and provides an underscore to the events unfolding on the screen. Gorbman (1987) defines the nondiegetic as ânarrative intrusion upon the diegesisâ (p. 22) via what Gabbard (1996) calls âextradiegetic music ⌠that the characters do not hearâ (p. 300). Noting the correspondence of such names as ânondiegetic,â âcommemorative,â and âsubjective,â Chion (1994) adopts the term pit music to designate âmusic that accompanies the image from a nondiegetic position, outside the space and time of the actionâ (p. 80). Such music remains largely in the background, generally goes unnoticed at the conscious level, and serves to enrich the meaning of the filmâs plot, the subtleties of its characterizations, the connotations of its events, and/or the significance of its narrative themes. As a classic example, noted by Gorbman (1987), âthe menacing âsharkâ theme, heard even before the camera in Jaws reveals the deadly shark closing in on the unsuspecting swimmers, gives the viewer advance knowledge of the narrative threatâ (p. 58). Thus, whenever the heroine approaches, we may hear a haunting love ballad associated with her sweet innocence, her virginal purity, and her tremulous sensitivity. Or an appearance of the villain may prompt the rehearsal of a nasty electronic wail that serves to represent his evil intent, his callous scurrility, and his maleficent machinations. Such nondiegetic uses, they say, establish associations and identifications that further the dramatic development of the plot, flesh out the persona of a particular character, or add depth to key story-related themes.
In sum, the conventional wisdom has suggested that diegetic music adds to a filmâs realism, whereas nondiegetic music contributes to the dramatic development of plot, characters, and other themes. Think, for example, of the difference between (say) Bernard Herrmann (nondiegeticist supreme) and (say) Henry Mancini (master of the commercially accessible diegetic filler song). Until the relatively recent revelations by Smith (1998), the former type of approach had received the lionâs share of attention from those writing about film music. Indeed, rather imperiously, Rosar (2002) actually defines film music as including only the nondiegetic type of background scoring. Notice, then, the set of implicit homologies that underlie such contrastsâ with the last three entries recapitulating the terms stressed by Chion (1994):
Diegesis : | Nondiegesis |
Source Music : | Background Music |
From Within : | From Without |
Realistic Depiction : | Dramatic Development |
Mancini : | Herrmann |
Neglected : | Given Precedence |
Screen Music : | Pit Music |
Actual : | Commemorative |
Objective : | Subjective |
As we shall see, such parallel binary oppositions permeate the writings of many whose work we shall consider in what follows.
Amplifications
Work That Focuses on Purely Diegetic or Nondiegetic Uses of Film Music
Studies that maintain the traditional diegetic/nondiegetic, source/background, realistic/dramatic, and related parallel binary distinctionsâthat is, the familiar homologies just describedâare not hard to find. These would include the following examples.
Atkins (1983) suggests that âThe categories of background scoring and source music are logical ones into which all film music can be dividedâ (p. 14). For example, in Casablanca (1943), the song âAs Time Goes Byâ begins as source music played by Sam (Dooley Wilson) in the nightclub owned by Rick (Humphrey Bogart) but then migrates to Max Steinerâs background score where it serves âin lushly orchestrated music cues behind many of the most dramatic and romantic scenes in the filmâ (p. 14; see also Neumeyer and Buhler 2001, p. 33).
In describing music from the Hollywood films of the 1930s and 1940s, Flinn (1992) emphasizes what she calls âthe âclassicalâ understanding of film musicâânamely, âthat the [nondiegetic background] scoreâ (such as uses of the aforementioned leitmotif) âsupports the development of the filmâs story line, that it exists to reinforce the narrational information already provided by the imageâ (p. 14). Examples include Max Steinerâs music for Gone with the Wind (1939), where we find âleitmotivs for Scarlet OâHara, Rhett Butler, and the other characters within the filmâ and where ââTaraâs Themeâ works in much the same way, although it identifies a place and not a characterâ (p. 108).
As described by Prendergast (1992), Leonard Rosenmanâs nondiegetic background score for The Cobweb (1955) uses Schoenbergian atonal compositional techniques to probe the mental states of residents at an insane asylum (p. 119). Thus, Rosenman explained his choice of twelve-tone or serial forms as an attempt âto show what was going on inside charactersâ headsâ (p. 119), as when dissonant music indicates that âtwo individuals have troublesome problems within themselvesâ (p. 123). Later, Prendergast (1992) discusses the score by Bernard Herrmann for Alfred Hitchcockâs Psycho (1960), remarkable for its use of a strings-only orchestra in an effort to complement the filmâs black-and-white photography with a âblack and white soundâ (p. 133). In the famous shower scene, the brutality of the murder is reflected by the violently strident music with its widely spaced diminished chords and major sevenths (p. 144). Still laterâspeaking mostly of nondiegetic (background) music and drawing on a discussion by Aaron CoplandâPrendergast (1992) mentions some key ways in which the musical score helps to realize âthe meaning of a filmâ (p. 213). These include its powers to create an âatmosphere of time and placeâ (p. 213); âpsychological refinementsâ such as âthe unspoken thoughts of a characterâ (p. 216); or an âunderpinning for the theatrical buildup of a sceneâ (p. 222). Such non-diegetic musical functions are beautifully illustrated in Prendergastâs analysis of David Raksinâs score for William Wylerâs Carrie (1952) where âan elegant waltz tune ⌠is used ⌠to recall those times between Hurstwood and Carrie when their problems did not involve mere survivalâ (p. 228).
Brown (1994) staunchly maintains the diegetic/nondiegetic, source/background, realistic/dramatic contrast(s) as a basis for his work (p. 67) and considers this distinction to be one of âthe cinematic givensâânamely, â(a) that there will almost always be an invisible nondiegetic score to boost the affective impact at key moments, and (b) that source music ⌠is being or can be heard by the characters in the narrativeâ (p. 68). In preserving, this diegetic/nondiegetic distinction, Brown (1994) makes it quite clear that he intends to focus primarily on the latter: âFilm music, in its âpureâ state is nondiegetic ⌠, and it is this type of music that will serve as the principal object of discussionâ (p. 22). Toward this end, Brown (1994) provides an excellent example of dramatic meanings in nondiegetic background music drawn from MiklĂłs RĂłzsaâs score for Alfred Hitchcockâs
Spellbound (1945), wherein similar-but-different love and suspense themes help us anticipate such events as an embrace between Gregory Peck and Ingrid Bergman (strings playing the love theme in a major mode) or physical violence (the suspense theme played by a somewhat weird-sounding theremin in a heavily chromatic minor mode) and wherein âThe interrelatedness of the two themes [especially in their rhythmic structures] suggests that love and madness are two sides of the same coinâ (p. 7). Elsewhere, Karlin (1994) agrees that âwhat RĂłzsa did with the theremin in
Spellbound ⌠immediately summarized the psychotic condition of the heroâ (p. 34) so as âto emphasize [his] psychological disturbanceâ (p. 105). Later, Brown (1994) describes Erich Wolfgang Korngoldâs score for
The Sea Hawk (1940) in terms that leave no doubts concerning his nondiegetic focus on âthe association of the heroism abstractly evoked by the fanfare theme with the character of Thorpeâ (p. 103). Further, Brown (1994) explains quite perceptively how certain harmonic practices create certain emotional effects or other meanings, as in Bernard Herrmannâs use of the âHitchcock chord,â otherwise known as a âminor major-seventh chordâ (p. 153)âfor example, reading upwards in the key of C minor, C-E
-G-B. Brown points out that âthis type of chord frequently appears in modern jazz, an idiom that has often been heard by traditional musical ears as definitely belonging to the domain of the irrationalâ (p. 153). Thus, âWhat characterizes the Herrmann/Hitchcock sound are the ways in which ⌠novel harmonic colorations make descent into the irrational felt as an ever-lurking potentialâ (p. 153) whereâin films such as
Vertigo (1958) and
Psycho (1960)â âthe âHitchcock chordâ ⌠immediately throws the viewer/listener off the rationalized center of normal Western tonality into a more irrational, mythic domainâ (pp. 159â160). This level of musicological detail goes far toward making Brownâs analyses of nondiegetic film scores all the more convincing. Later, when explicitly discussing the use of jazz in films, Brown (1994) focuses especially on two nondiegetic background scoresâone by John Lewis for Robert Wiseâs
Odds Against Tomorrow (1959) and another by
Miles Davis for Louis Malleâs
Ascenseur Pour LâĂchafaud (1958)âboth discussed at length in
Chapter 13. In Brownâs view, Lewis provides âa consistently moody interplay of timbres and dissonant harmonies that strikingly parallel the coldness and loneliness of the filmâs winter settings ⌠and the bitterness of its narrativeâ (p. 185), while Davis âcommunicatesâ via âa set of minor-mode improvisations, filled with tritones and minor thirds, with Davisâs trumpet wailing softly over a slow, grim accompanimentâ in a way that âbleakly creates most of the filmâs musical affectâ (p. 185) to convey a mood of desolation and despair.
Karlin (1994) also carefully preserves the traditional diegetic/nondiegetic, source/score, or on-screen/background distinction where âSource music can be well used to give the flavor of a particular period in timeâ (p. 69) and where âThe score, also called âunderscoringâ or the âbackground scoreââ (p. 68) will serve âall the emotional and other dramatic needs of the filmâ (p. 41) insofar as it reflects âthe filmâs dramatic theme(s), its characters, its rhythms and textures, and most important, its dramatic requirementsâ (p. 86). Quoting composer Jerry Goldsmith, Karlin (1994) sees âthe real function of scoringâ as âto support the filmâs impact on the mind and the emotions of the audienceâ (p. 87). Further, Karlin (1994) suggests, âThe specific sound of a particular instrument or group of instruments can characterize or represent a major dramatic elementââas when Karlin himself used recorders as appropriate instruments to capture âthe personality (nonassertive and wispy) and background (medieval literature)â of Sandy Dennis (as a school teacher) in Up th...