Women in Medieval Western European Culture

Linda E. Mitchell

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2012
• ISBN:
  9781136522031
• Edition: 1
• Topic: History
• Subtopic: World History
• Index: History

This is the book that teachers of courses on women in the Middle Ages have been wanting to write-or see written-for years. Essays written by specialists in their respective fields cover a range of topics unmatched in depth and breadth by any other introductory text. Depictions of women in literature and art, women in the medieval urban landscape, an the issue of women's relation to definitions of deviance and otherness all receive particular attention. Geographical regions such as the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic Near East are fully incorporated into the text, expanding the horizons of medieval studies. The collection is organized thematically and includes all the tools needed to contextualize women in medieval society and culture.

PART I

Women in Medieval Society

INTRODUCTION

The essays in this section focus on the position of women in medieval society. From between roughly 500 C.E. and 1550 C.E., European society was dominated by competing political and social perspectives. On the one hand was the vision of the unified Church, expressed in the concept of Christendom which included not only the Latin but also the Byzantine Christians in its orbit. On the other hand was the developing vision within the varied and fragmented political systems of Europe of a sense of secular sovereignty divorced from religious considerations and, eventually, focused on the ideal of the nation-state (although this idea was in its infancy for the entire length of the medieval period). Just as there was conflict between the centralizing emphasis of the Church and the growing sense of sovereign difference on the part of the State, so, too was there conflict between senses of cultural unity and the very real separateness and specificity of the class construction of medieval society. The different social classes were not only aware of the nature of social stratification; they usually upheld such social distinctions as appropriate and rational. Underpinned by the Church's own pyramidal structure, the class structure of medieval Europe—the nobility, the urban classes, and the peasantry—sustained itself despite political upheavals, war, and plague. Only in isolated circumstances did a revolutionary thinker decry the stratification of medieval society: “when Adam delved and Eve span, who was then the gentleman?” John Ball asked in the late fourteenth century, but he was executed as a traitor and his concept of equality under the law of nature was not voiced again until the writings of John Locke and the Scientific Revolution.

In the twelfth century, several intellectuals of the cathedral schools of France posited that medieval society was divided into three “orders”: those who pray, those who fight, and those who labor. These distinctions, while perhaps having some political meaning, had little economic relevance. Those who pray—the clergy and the monastic community—were made up almost entirely of the aristocracy, who also comprised the category “those who fight.” Those who labor encompassed an enormous and diverse population, ranging from the peasant bonded in semi-slavery to the land to the wealthy merchant who could command more moveable wealth even than the nobility. Moreover, the distinctions made by the “three orders” were not entirely accurate in fact. By the end of the Middle Ages, most of the armies contained infantry drawn from the peasant classes and from the urban populations of Europe, and the role of the mounted knight, while still important, was soon eclipsed by the role of the professional soldier and the mercenary, drawn from every walk of life and not bound by the traditional structure of the “three orders.” In addition, this design for medieval society failed to include an essential component of the medieval world: the women of each social class, who prayed but could not become priests, who ruled over land but could not become knights, and who worked alongside their husbands, fathers, and brothers but could not hold official positions of mastery on the manor or in the guild. Finally, such distinctions entirely left out the non-Christian populations of medieval Europe, both Jews, who comprised a significant and important minority in all parts of Europe, and Muslims, who had assumed control over most of the Byzantine Empire, North Africa, and Spain by the end of the eighth century.

Thus, it is necessary to redesign the image of medieval society so that it encompasses a wider and more diverse group of people. The essays which follow do just that: outline in broad terms the positions and roles of women from various parts of the medieval world and in various social circumstances. Amy Livingstone focuses on noble-women, predominantly in northern Europe and England during the High Middle Ages. She outlines the many roles which noblewomen played as they moved from the status of daughter to that of wife and, perhaps, widow in the course of their lives. Barbara Hanawalt and Anna Dronzek outline the position of women in the urban communities of high medieval Europe and discuss the remarkable variety of urban women's experiences in the economic, familial, and social roles which they played. Madonna Hettinger gives a glimpse of the peasant woman's day and suggests that the many duties which devolved onto women of the peasant classes required them to “strategize” in order to get everything accomplished that needed doing. Judith Baskin presents a view of Jewish women in Europe, in both Sephardic (southern) and Ashkenazic (eastern) communities. Angeliki Laiou outlines the position of women in the Byzantine Empire, from royal women to working women. Finally, Jonathan Berkey discusses the roles and activities of women in the Islamic communities of the Near East.

CHAPTER 1

Powerful Allies and Dangerous Adversaries

Noblewomen in Medieval Society

Amy Livingstone

He [Erec] could not keep from kissing her; eagerly he drew near to her. Looking at her restored and delighted him; he kept looking at her blonde hair, her laughing eyes and unclouded brow, her nose and face and mouth; and from this a great affection touched his heart. He admired everything, down to her hips: her chin and her white throat, her flanks and sides, her arms and hands.

But the damsel [Enide], for her part, looked at the knight no less than he looked at her, with favorable eye and loyal heart, in eager emulation. They would not have accepted a ransom to leave off looking at one another. They were very well and evenly matched in courtliness, in beauty, and in great nobility. They were so similar, of one character and of one essence, that no one wanting to speak truly could have chosen the better one or the more beautiful or the wiser. They were very equal in spirit and very well suited to one another.¹[emphasis mine]

The quotation above is from Erec and Enide, an early Arthurian romance written in the second half of the twelfth century. The stories in this literary genre sung the praises of knights and their fair ladies and wove tales of bravery, valor, and love. Chrétien de Troyes, the author of this romance, clearly believed that these two nobles were equal in beauty, wisdom, and nobility. Indeed, based solely on this passage, one might be tempted to assume noblewomen were the “equals” of their husbands, fathers, brothers, and sons. But equality is a modern construct with little applicability to the people of the medieval period, although it is clear from this passage that this twelfth-century poet believed that Erec and Enide enjoyed some sort of parity. Was such parity an artifice of medieval literature or did the “real” Enides of the High Middle Ages (1000–1300) enjoy status and power in their society? Many historians believe that the latter was indeed the case. The renowned medievalist Eileen Power characterized women's position in medieval society as one of “rough and ready equality.” Similarly, the French medieval historian, Robert Fossier, has described the Central Middle Ages as a “matriarchal phase” in the history of Europe.²

What sorts of powers and responsibilities did noblewomen exercise that has led two such esteemed scholars to describe the experience of women in the “dark ages” so positively? In this essay I will examine the stages of a noblewoman's life in the Middle Ages. What relationships were important to her? What rights and responsibilities did noble-women have during the course of their lives? What did they do for fun? By analyzing the life experience of women throughout western Europe over several centuries, I hope that the richness of their lives and their powerful and fundamentally crucial role in medieval society will become apparent.

Before discussing the life experiences of noblewomen, it is necessary to summarize the developments of the medieval period and how they affected women's lives. Was the parity between Erec and Enide, as described by Chrétien de Troyes, the first time women had enjoyed such status? The answer is no. The High Middle Ages did not see an abrupt increase or expansion in the rights, position, and activities of noblewomen but saw rather a continuation of an earlier pattern and practice. In many ways the women of this period owed a debt to these earlier centuries, for without certain legal, social, economic, and political developments, their experience might have been drastically different.

After the collapse of the Roman Empire, western Europe devolved into a series of successor states of Germanic kingdoms. The Germans valued women and set heavy fines and wergelds (the monetary value put on a person's life) for the death, abduction, or violation of daughters, wives, and sisters. In the sixth century, the kingdom of the Franks began to emerge as one of the most powerful of these successor states. At the same time, Christianity was making inroads among the previously pagan Germans, and, in many cases, royal spouses were the channel through which Christianity came to these Germanic tribes. Noblewomen also found many opportunities within the church as well, acting as patronesses of new monastic foundations and, in some cases, even as the abbesses of these houses. But the tenuous unity forged among the Franks did not last very long, and the Frankish kingdom broke apart and became subject to violent and often brutal infighting among the royal and noble families. Women took their place among the bloody annals of this period. The slave and concubine Fredgond used her wiles to have King Chilperic murder his wife. The Queens Brunhilda and Bathilda acted as powerful regents for their sons and often engaged in violence to secure or promote their sons’ positions. While historians of this period record the contributions of many royal women in these affairs of state, their inclusion was based upon their sometimes tenuous relationship with husbands or sons. In short, their power and status was not formally recognized by early medieval society.

The period of the eighth and ninth centuries represented an important time for noblewomen. On the continent, Charlemagne established order and forged an empire where the western reaches of the Roman Empire had once existed. Accompanying the creation of this empire were certain important legal reforms, among them the recognition of women's legal rights to land. Daughters could now share in the family inheritance and widows could control their husband's or son's property. Another development that increased noblewomen's status was the recognition of the queen as head of the royal household. In this role, a queen administered the royal lands and treasury—a considerable responsibility that entailed many different kinds of powers. This position was formally acknowledged when queens underwent the ceremony of anointing along with their royal husbands and sons. Certain changes in government worked to the detriment of noblewomen's power, however. As part of his attempt to rule his empire effectively, Charlemagne delegated certain responsibilities to officials such as missi dominici and counts. Although the queen ran the royal household, women were not candidates for these official positions. Perhaps fortunately for noblewomen, this formalization of government did not last much past the death of Charlemagne himself.

During the late ninth and tenth centuries and for most of the eleventh, the centralized system of government that Charlemagne envisaged crumbled. In its place local strongmen, who may have been counts and dukes under Charlemagne, or their descendants, assumed responsibility for providing stability, protection, and justice for a dependent population. Those not descended from counts or dukes (often called castellans because of their control of castles) established alliances with powerful lords. Counts, dukes, and castellans alike bound warriors of a lesser status through the process of granting out fiefs. As power localized and central authority weakened, distinctions between private and public power blurred. Families who controlled fiefs came to provide services, such as justice, that in modern times are associated with public authority. Noble families established powerful dynasties that ruled western continental Europe for generations, and women, as members of these families, shared in this power and prestige. The contributions of the Carolingian period assured them a right to inherit a portion of their family estate and accorded them the position of estate manager. Since husbands were often away on military campaign in such turbulent times, the management and defense of the family home was left in the capable hands of their wives.

The experience of noblewomen in Anglo-Saxon England was somewhat different from that of their continental counterparts. In the early Middle Ages, England was made up of a series of kingdoms that coalesced into one royal house only in the tenth century. Anglo-Saxon queens were extremely influential and, like continental queens, played an important part in the spread of Christianity in England. Noblewomen enjoyed many of the same rights to property that Charlemagne's reforms ensured for women in his empire, although they gained them somewhat earlier. A survey of Anglo-Saxon wills reveals that noble-women controlled significant portions of property and that there was no apparent preference shown to males as heirs. One important difference between the women of the continent and Anglo-Saxon women was that the latter could rule territory in their own right. While there were many highly visible Frankish queens, they ruled usually in the name of then sons or as counterparts to their husbands. In contrast, Ethelflaed, the daughter of Alfred the Great, king of Wessex, became the “lady of the Mercians” upon the death of her husband, the lord of Mercia. Ethelflaed ruled for many years and was succeeded, albeit briefly, by her daughter. Anglo-Saxon women continued to be recognized as powerful members of aristocratic society through the eleventh century. With the coming of the Normans, however, Anglo-Saxon women were dispossessed of their lands, and their rights of inheritance were sharply curtailed.

In the late eleventh and twelfth centuries, medieval society underwent a series of important transformations. Chief among them was the resurrection on the continent of effective monarchical leadership and the coopting of noblemen into the royal household and into appointed offices such as seneschal to the king. In some cases, dynastic control over these offices was established. Noblewomen, however, were not considered viable candidates for such positions. Nevertheless, women still remained vital to noble families as managers of estates, as fellow investors in the economic expansion of the high medieval cities, and as consumers and patrons of cultural and artistic movements that developed with the expansion of moveable wealth.

Like secular society, the church also underwent a period of renewal during the High Middle Ages. Dedicated churchmen attempted to expunge the corrupt secular elements from the church and to elevate the power of the pope. While many of the church's changes were detrimental to women, particularly the insistence on clerical celibacy, reform also offered opportunities for noblewomen. For example, noble-women were inspired by reformers to establish and support new ecclesiastical foundations aimed at instituting the new reformist zeal.

Central to the question of a noblewoman's station and power was her family. If born into a powerful family, a noblewoman could expect great wealth, a share of the inheritance, and many opportunities for herself and any children she might have. If not so lucky, a noblewoman's quest for power might have been considerably more difficult, but it was still not without possibilities. When the centralizing power of the monarchy was at a low point and noble families held more or less sovereign authority, women achieved the most formal power. As medieval society became more organized and bureaucratic, women's access to authority was more difficult. Yet while their access to some sorts of authority may have been curtailed, noblewomen continued to exercise influence through other channels.

STAGES OF LIFE: DAUGHTER, WIFE AND MOTHER, WIDOW

What was it like to be an aristocratic woman growing up in the Middle Ages? A girl's immediate environment would consist of a small room adjacent to the great hall in her family's castle. Castles of this period were designed for their military advantages rather than for creature comforts. As a consequence, the bailey, keep, or dungeon in which the family resided was likely square or perhaps round in shape. The ground level was used for storage of food stuffs and household necessities or perhaps for billeting warriors. The second level consisted of a great hall that served many functions. It was here that the family, servants, dependents, and any visitors would eat. The lord of the castle would convene his law court here and oversee cases involving various disputes. The great hall was also where many of the family servants and retainers would sleep. The children of the noble family slept with their parents and kin in a chamber off the main hall or perhaps in a separate chamber with their nurse once they were old enough. The castle itself, likely made of wood, or perhaps stone, was cold and very drafty.

The needs of noble daughters were met by mother and nurse. If there was an older sister in residence, she, too, might help supervise the child. Infants tended to be nursed by a wet nurse rather than the mother. The relationship between wet nurse and charge was vital to the wellbeing of the child, and wills and other testaments indicate that the bond was a strong and affectionate one. The immediate noble family was nuclear, consisting of a mother, father, and siblings. The number of children varied between four and six, and child mortality was very high. It has been estimated that 29 percent of female noble children and 36 percent of males died before the age of five. Although absent from the household, extended kin played an important role in the life of a noble child. An aunt, uncle or cousin might act as god-parent. In addition to the immediate family and nurse, the child would be surrounded by the familia. While similar to the modern “family,” the familia was a broader term which included servants, extended kin, and dependents.

If a daughter survived childhood, she could expect to be trained in the skills and arts that would befit her position and be useful in her life as a member of a noble family. Mothers were responsible for educating their young children. A noble daughter would be introduced to sewing as well as to the skills necessary for the effective management of an estate. In order to accomplish such varied tasks, a noblewoman needed to be literate, at least in her vernacular tongue, and girls learned how to read and write either from the resident priest or their mothers or they might be sent to a local convent. While few nobles were probably educated extensively in the “liberal arts,” most probably did have rudimentary literacy. Because of her role as estate ma...

Table of contents

• Front Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Contents
• Introduction: Sources for the History of Medieval Women
• Part I. Women in Medieval Society: Introduction
• Part II. Women and Law in the Middle Ages: Introduction
• Part III. Women and the Medieval Political World: Introduction
• Part IV. Economics and Work in the Urban World: Introduction
• Part V. Women and Medieval Christianity: Introduction
• Part VI. Women and Medieval Culture: Literature and Art: Introduction
• Appendix
• Bibliography
• Contributors
• Index