Created Being

Expanding Creedal Christology

Rebecca L. Copeland

• Publisher: Baylor University Press
• Year: 2020
• ISBN:
  9781481313049
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Systematic Theology & Ethics

The doctrine of the incarnation stands at the heart of Christian faith and formation. Perhaps for that very reason, Christian claims about the incarnation are hotly contested. Specifically, a common critique of the orthodox doctrine holds that the belief that God's becoming flesh in the person of Jesus is a universally significant event causes problems in an increasingly pluralistic world. Some argue that the doctrine supports injustice, others say that it is logically incoherent, and still others find it implausible.

Rebecca L. Copeland undertakes to recover the essence of traditional Christian convictions about the person of Christ. Instead of tempering christological claims to avoid such problems, Created Being argues that it is not the doctrine itself presenting these challenges—rather, the challenges emerge from readings of the doctrine that privilege humanity and, more particularly, maleness. Copeland thus offers a reconstructed Christology that is faithful to creedal insights while answering the justice, coherence, and plausibility challenges raised, all while providing an understanding of Christ's "consubstantiality" that is inclusive of the entire created order. Feminist and ecotheological critiques further aid in reclaiming the significance of the incarnation for all members of creation.

Homo sapiens, Copeland asserts, are not at the center of the universe, and neither should we occupy the central interpretive role for understanding Christ's importance. Engaging the perspectives of all domains of "being, " this volume dismantles rigid hierarchies and brings ancient insights into the proper relationships among God, human and creaturely beings, and nature. Created Being presents a cosmic understanding of Christ without losing sight of the particularities of Jesus' personhood. In doing so, this book lays the foundation for a universal soteriology and an ethic poised to address the particular needs of the twenty-first century.

1

Christological Divides

I believe in one Lord Jesus Christ,

the Only Begotten Son of God,

born of the Father before all ages.

God from God, Light from Light,

true God from true God,

begotten, not made, consubstantial with the Father;

through him all things were made.

For us men and for our salvation

he came down from heaven,

and by the Holy Spirit was incarnate of the Virgin Mary,

and became man.

For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate,

he suffered death and was buried,

and rose again on the third day

in accordance with the Scriptures.

—from the Nicene Creed

Each week Christians around the world recite the Nicene Creed, affirming their belief that Jesus Christ is “true God from true God” and also that he “came down from heaven . . . and became man.” For Christians, this claim goes beyond assertions of divine immanence—that God is present to all parts of creation. Rather, it asserts that the divine Word entered the world as the particular person Jesus. Christians have traditionally also affirmed that the incarnation has an absolute, universal, and unique significance for God’s creation. This affirmation, so central to the Christian faith, causes problems. It caused problems in 325 CE, when the First Council of Nicaea met to address christological disagreements, and it continues to cause problems today. The problems that this doctrine creates can be classified into three broad categories: justice, coherence, and plausibility challenges to the incarnation. Some argue that the doctrine is unjust because Christology has been deployed to support a variety of moral evils, including Christian patriarchy, colonialism, and environmental desecration. Some challenge the coherence of the incarnation, arguing that it is illogical to assert that one person could be both human and divine because humanity and divinity are characterized by mutually exclusive properties. Other critics argue that the plurality of religions in the world and the incomprehensible size of the universe render implausible the claim that the actions of one particular person in one particular time and place could be universally significant. These challenges are raised both severally and jointly, and each emphasizes different aspects of christological controversy.

Justice Challenges

In the 1960s some believed that the Catholic Church might change its policy on the ordination of women. As women took on larger roles in society more generally, Pope Paul VI acknowledged that women should also play a more important role in “the various fields of the Church’s apostolate.”1 A decade later, however, the Vatican clarified that women still could not be ordained as priests because Christ was a man and there must be a “natural resemblance” between the priest and Christ.2 The Vatican used the person of Jesus to justify the continued exclusion of women from the Catholic priesthood.

A portrait of Jesus with Caucasian features, long hair, and oftentimes blue eyes hangs in churches across the United States. This portrait has been reproduced more than 500 million times since Warner Sallman first sketched the Head of Christ in 1924.3 Despite the fact that Jesus was born to a Jewish family in Palestine, the myth that he was a white man persists in cultures shaped by white supremacy. It remained alive and well in 2013 when then-Fox News anchor Megyn Kelly argued on national television that “Jesus was a white man . . . he was a historical figure, that’s a verifiable fact.”4 Prominent figures bolster white supremacy by promoting the myth that Jesus was Caucasian.

In 2007 the Southern Baptist Convention urged the US government not to take action on the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, but rather to “reject government-mandated reductions in greenhouse gas emissions” and other regulatory actions that might impede economic growth.5 Ten years earlier, Calvin Beisner had provided evangelical Christians with christological grounds for this perspective when he argued that as “the restorer of mankind,” Christ revealed what human beings “are destined to become.”6 Drawing from gospel accounts of Jesus stilling the storm and cursing a fig tree, Beisner argues that human beings should exercise similar dominion over nature, and that “man’s increasing subjugation of nature (Gen. 1:28) is a good thing.”7 Many Christians use the actions of Jesus to justify damaging environmental exploitation.

The abuses that people have justified by appealing to Jesus lead many to doubt Christian claims about the incarnation. John Hick argues that the doctrine of the incarnation “is inherently liable to dangerous misuse by fallen human nature,” and has been used to justify “colonial exploitation of the Third (or two-thirds) World” and “Western patriarchalism.”8 Mary Daly argues that the symbol of Jesus Christ is inherently deficient and should be abandoned.9 John Cobb notes, “Many thoughtful believers are clear that they do not want to continue to make assertions about Jesus Christ that are anti-Jewish or sexist. . . . Many want to avoid, in general, language that appears to belittle the faith of people in other religious communities.”10 Because many assume that the doctrine of the incarnation itself justifies these injustices, some theologians are willing to forego Christian claims about Jesus altogether, while others sacrifice the narrowly defined doctrine of the incarnation in favor of an incarnational understanding of reality.11 The doctrine itself, however, does not support the unjust uses that have been made of it.12 These problems arise when certain characteristics of Jesus, whether real (such as his maleness) or imagined (his whiteness or affiliation with Western cultural norms), are treated as soteriologically significant. Such interpretations are based on assumptions that the characteristics of Jesus represent the best possible characteristics, or that those who share certain characteristics with Jesus are somehow closer to God than are other beings.13 If the doctrine of the incarnation and claims about its universal significance can be redeemed, they must be separable from these assumptions.14

Coherence Challenges

Although Christianity is paradoxical, it should not simply spout nonsense.15 Yet critics claim that spouting nonsense is precisely what the doctrine of the incarnation does.16 This is because philosophers and theologians understand divinity and humanity as characterized by complementary attributes. Some attributes, such as location in place and finitude in knowledge and power, are applicable to human beings, while their negations—omnipresence, omniscience, and omnipotence—are applicable to the divine. These attributes are understood to be mutually exclusive: nothing can possess both an attribute and its negation at the same time and in the same way. Thus, the argument goes, it is logically impossible to affirm that one person could be both divine and human at the same time.17 If being divine means that one must possess some attribute X, and being human means that one must possess some attribute not-X, then it is incoherent to say that the same person could be both X and not-X at the same time.18

Challenges to the coherence of the incarnation are based on a priori definitions of divinity and humanity.19 A priori definitions of divinity can be found in the lists of attributes that classical theism has found appropriate to attach to God, including: eternality, omnipotence, omniscience, omnipresence, self-existence, impeccability, impassibility, immutability, and goodness.20 These characteristics are typical of the understanding, advanced by Anselm of Canterbury in the eleventh century, that God is “that than which nothing greater can be thought.”21 From this description, Anselm deduced that God is “whatever it is better to be than not to be,” including self-existent, creator of all things, just, truthful, happy, percipient, omnipotent, merciful, impassible, living, wise, good, eternal, and unbounded.22 This list is not simply an apophatic denial of limitations to the divine, but the positive attribution of certain characteristics to God, characteristics that can be called “great-making properties.”23 Under this line of reasoning, the divine attributes are all of those characteristics that it is better to possess than not to possess, and that can be possessed together. The greatness of these attributes is assumed to be self-evident: obviously it is greater to be impassible than to be passible, greater to be living than to be non-living, and greater to be unbounded than to be bounded.24 According to those challenging the coherence of the incarnation, if Jesus is fully God, he must possess all of the great-making attributes that classical theism has assigned to God.

In contrast, humanity is defined as visible, comprehensible, limited, passible, localized to a place, mutable, contingent, peccable, and non-omniscient.25 The majority of these characteristics are properties commonly held by all material beings; that is, the characteristics of visibility, comprehensibility, limitation, placed-ness, contingency, and non-omniscience are as applicable to all other material bodies as they are to human beings. Humans share the characteristics of mortality and passibility with all living beings. Only peccability, the capacity to sin, can arguably be limited to human beings alone among material beings, although those who allow that other beings also possess some form of freedom might include peccability among these shared characteristics as well.26 If Jesus is fully human, then he must possess all of those attributes that characterize human existence.

Several characteristics from a priori definitions of humanity and divinity do seem to be logically incompatible.27 If the doctrine of the incarnation can be redeemed from incoherence, it will need to re-examine a priori understandings of humanity and divinity, offer an understanding of human language in relationship to defining such natures, and advance an explanation of how these definitions are not incompatible.28

Plausibility Challenges

The final set of plausibility challenges rest on the belief that modern, or postmodern, understandings of the cosmos render unbelievable claims that one particular person, living in one particular place and time, is uniquely and universally salvific. Plausibility challenges are primarily based on two developments: greater exposure to other cultures and religions, and a better understanding of the enormity of the cosmos (and with that, the possibility of sentient life on other planets). In light of the Enlightenment’s focus on the equality of human beings and its related critique of special (or limited) revelation, critics argue that these developments render the doctrine implausible if the salvific effects of the incarnation are not equally available to all.

The populations of the world have not had equal access to the special revelation of the incarnation, and many believe this lack of equity makes salvation on the basis of it unjust. Christian claims to possess unique or superior revelation in the Gospels lead to a disparagement of other religious traditions, whether or not this slight is intentional. Christian teaching that “outside the church (or outside Christianity) there is no salvation” leads many in religiously plural contexts to reject Christianity rather than believe that God condemns moral individuals of other faiths for not living according to a revelation they have either never received or been culturally conditioned to disbelieve.

Additionally, the universe as we understand it at the beginning of the twenty-first century is undeniably different than the understanding held by the earliest Christians. Not only has the Ptolemaic, geocentric cosmology of the ancient world been supplanted by a heliocentric model that places the sun at the center of the solar system, the universe is much larger than previously imagined—composed of billions of galaxies, each containing billions of stellar systems. The earth is not the center of the cosmos, as premodern belief systems held, but a tiny part of it. This recognition has led many to argue that the idea that God would become incarnate on this single planet for the lifespan of one single man is as erroneous as the idea that the sun orbits the earth.29 The reasoning behind this objection is not nearly as clear as its proponents assume, however. The difference in magnitude between the universe as it was understood two thousand years ago and as it is understood now does not explain how the claim for the universal significance of one man’s life was once believable and yet no longer is.30 The earth itself is very large, and it is far beyond the ability of any human being to establish a pe...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Contents
• Acknowledgments
• Preface
• 1. Christological Divides
• 2. What’s an Ousia?
• 3. Truly Created, Truly Creator
• 4. And God Became a Creature
• 5. Created Together
• Notes
• Bibliography
• Index