Historicity is a prominent feature in many of Mo Yanās works. Topical references to contemporary history pervade the narratives as they unfold the stories of individual characters, their families, and the actual events influencing human destiny. As Mo Yan explains in the postscript to Big Breasts and Wide Hips, the national history narrated through fiction needs to be derived from the common people. National history in fictional works, in other words, is not the history that one reads about in textbooks, but rather the common peopleās version told in the form of legend (chuanqihua le de lishi å³å„話äŗēę·å²). It is deinstitutionalized history. Remarking on Red Sorghum, Mo Yan observes, āThe only history in my head is the legendary type,ā2 stressing the importance of a free-ranging imagination and the fact that the history he is writing is actually the version handed down from oral sources about historical figures acting under and upon real-life circumstances. In other words, style precedes content in what he conceives to be storytelling as history writing. This attempt to deinstitutionalize official national history carries a skeptical or even subversive overtone. Paradox may often serve as camouflage by which a confrontation of viewpoints becomes understated in equivocal language. Mo Yan is then capable of appealing to the proletarian values sanctified by national policy makers while debunking the grand narrative of national history.
Narrative authenticity, which ostensibly legitimizes official history, is deliberately problematized in Mo Yanās works. In this spirit, he allegorizes and comments upon the historical references made in his novels, employing a combination of symbolism, hyperbole, parody, satire, and fantasy to refract historical realities and discredit verisimilitude as a path to historical truth. The result is frequent shifting between fantasy and realism, to the point that the line between the two is emphatically blurred.
Reimagining the Sino-Japanese War
Like most of his fiction, Mo Yanās first full-length novel, Red Sorghum, is set in Northeast Gaomi township of Shandong province, and the main narrative unfolds against the historical backdrop of the 1930s, during which China was engaged in fierce resistance against the Japanese invaders while also caught up in a civil war involving the Nationalists, the Communists, and the collaborators (hanjian ę¼¢å„ø) fighting for dominance. The narrator notes at the beginning that Northeastern Gaomi township is āeasily the most beautiful and most repulsive, most unusual and most common, most sacred and most corrupt, most heroic and most bastardly, hardest-drinking and hardest-loving place in the world,ā3 and he has subsequently described how he hoped to make Northeast Gaomi township āa miniature of China and even the world.ā
The novel takes its title from a local variety of sorghum used for food and for brewing wine, which is identified with the spirit of the land ā its shiny dark red color as the blood that flows through the veins of the heroic people who have lived there for centuries. Likewise, the Black Water River is described as being both fertile and toxic, a symbol of life and death: āa river as cumbersome as the great, clumsy Han cultureā (102/88; translation revised). The geographic setting is also given a larger-than-life aura reflective of the paradox that Mo Yan sees in its people. In the same spirit, topicality and fabrication are interlaced to render the narrative a hybrid of realism and antirealism.
The narrator opens the story by matter-of-factly announcing the specific day (the ninth day of the eighth lunar month of the year 1939) on which an incident will dramatically change the fate of a family. The invading Japanese soldiers force the local conscripts to drag all vehicles and cattle to the riverbank to build a highway for moving troops and transporting military supplies. To establish the historical credibility of his narrative, the narrator cites from the county gazetteer, which records details of this historical incident: 400,000 shifts of hard labor, severe damage of the yearās crop, and so forth. This military maneuver meets with fierce resistance, causing dire casualties among the locals, including the deaths of Grandma, Arhat Liu, and many other villagers. Amid the descriptions of killing and torturing and the intrigues and betrayals among the local factions, the reader is introduced to the lush waves of ripe red sorghum stalks.
The sorghum in the novel stands for the heroic ancestry of the Gaomi people, ālines of scarlet figures shuttled among the sorghum stalks to weave a vast human tapestry.ā Their āunfilial descendants who now occupy the land pale by comparison.ā The narrator laments that āsurrounded by progress, I feel a nagging sense of our speciesā regressionā (4). At the end of the novel, he mourns the vanished red sorghum, which āhas been drowned in a raging flood of revolution and no longer exists,ā having been replaced by a hybrid green sorghum ābereft of tall, straight stalks ā¦ devoid of the dazzling sorghum color ā¦ they pollute the pure air of Northeast Gaomi Township with their dark, gloomy, ambiguous facesā (377). The red sorghum stands for the golden days of the land and its people that are extinct in modern-day Northeastern Gaomi township and, by extension, contemporary China.
There are, however, some modern-day heroes and heroines who challenge patriarchal constraints and foreign invaders. In flashbacks, the narrator relates the illicit romantic love between his grandparents, Commander Yu and Dai Fenglian. Commander Yu, a coolie turned bandit, is caught in a love triangle with two fearless, self-reliant women, Grandma and Lianāer. Commander Yu commits larceny and murder to snatch Dai, and shortly afterward falls in love with Daiās servant girl, Lianāer. Sex scenes are presented in an explicit and yet genteel language, highlighting sensuality and an urge to break out of social conventions. Grandma dies on the bank of the Black Water River in a gun fight against the Japanese soldiers, Commander Yu dies seeking to avenge her death, and Lianāer dies after offering herself to the Japanese soldiers in an attempt to save her daughter. The rape and murder scenes are described in graphic detail.
Up to the final chapter of the novel, the story line follows a more or less coherent structure despite the authorās frequent use of flashbacks. The final chapter, however, features a number of unnatural deaths, including a weasel that is beaten to death by Lianāer in revenge for the chickens it has killed, the gruesome death of Lianāerās daughter at the hands of the Japanese soldiers, and Lianāerās own prolonged derangement and death when she is brought home by Commander Yu after having been raped by the Japanese soldiers. In his first attempt at the fantastic, Mo Yan turns to Pu Songlingās č²ę¾é½” Liaozhai zhiyi čé½čŖē°, a local literary legacy of the fantastic mode by which he often claims to be proudly inspired.4 For instance, he describes how Lianāer was convinced that a weasel
had absolute control over her in some deep, dark place. Whatever it ordered her to do, she did: cry, laugh, speak in tongues, perform strange acts. ā¦ Always, the image of the potent black-mouthed weasel swayed before her eyes, grinning hideously and whisking her skin vigorously with its tail.
After a long spell of whipping, shouting, and cursing, Lianāer ācrumpled to the ground, spittle drooling from the corners of her mouth, her body lathered in sweat, her face the color of gold foilā (335). She dies only after a famed exorcist has finally been able to rid her of the sinister weasel.
Mo Yan repeatedly insists that he is not a writer of textbook history, but rather of fiction. Toward the end of the novel, in an episode dated to the early spring of 1940, Northeastern Gaomi township lies in ruins as rival local factions continue to fight the Japanese invaders and each other. The supernatural phenomena preceding Lianāerās death are interlaced with descriptions of gory battle scenes. Battlefield violence and rowdy exorcism are combined in a surreal manner, offering a satirical comment on this historical period.
In The Republic of Wine, Mo Yan further develops this sort of interplay between the realist and the fantastic mode of writing. Consisting of a series of overlapping narrative frames, The Republic of Wine includes fragments from a novel (also titled The Republic of Wine) being composed by a fictional character named Mo Yan, an epistolary correspondence between this fictional Mo Yan and a character named Li Yidou, together with a series of short stories that Li Yidou sends the fictional Mo Yan. Li Yidou is described as being an enthusiastic fan of (the fictional) Mo Yanās work, particularly his novel Red Sorghum, and the short stories that he sends ā in the hope that the celebrated author can help him get published ā are all ostensibly inspired by Mo Yanās own writings. When the fictional Mo Yan receives these manuscripts, however, he finds them utterly lacking in literary merit.
The novel that the fictional Mo Yan is attempting to write can also be viewed as an informal sequel to Red Sorghum. While the primary narrative plane of Mo Yanās first novel is set during the Sino-Japanese War and thematizes sorghum wine as a beverage for the common people, however, the embedded novel in The Republic of Wine is set in the post-Mao era and uses Maotai and other hyperex-pensive versions of sorghum wine to critique the epidemic of collusion between businessmen and government officials that plagues contemporary China. However, a deeper irony lies in the sharp contrast between the two novelsā subject matter and intent. While Red Sorghum reconstructs a historical period of war and individual sacrifice for the national cause, celebrating and lamenting sex and death in a grandiose manner, The Republic of Wine points to what Mo Yan identifies as āa unique problem in China,...