Proteins: Sustainable Source, Processing and Applications

Charis M. Galanakis

• Publisher: Academic Press
• Year: 2019
• ISBN:
  9780128172865
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Food Science
• Index: Technology & Engineering

Proteins: Sustainable Source, Processing and Applications addresses sustainable proteins, with an emphasis on proteins of animal origin, plant-based and insect proteins, microalgal single cell proteins, extraction, production, the stability and bioengineering of proteins, food applications (e.g. encapsulation, films and coatings), consumer behavior and sustainable consumption. Written in a scientific manner to meet the needs of chemists, food scientists, technologists, new product developers and academics, this book addresses the health effects and properties of proteins, highlights sustainable sources, processes and consumption models, and analyzes the potentiality of already commercialized processes and products.

This book is an integral resource that supports the current applications of proteins in the food industry, along with those that are currently under development.

• Supports the current applications of proteins in the food industry, along with those that are under development
• Connects the properties and health effects of proteins with sustainable sources, recovery procedures, stability and encapsulation
• Explores industrial applications that are affected by aforementioned aspects

Chapter 1

Sustainable Proteins Production

Peter Alexander^1,2, Calum Brown³, Clare Dias⁴, Dominic Moran² and Mark D.A. Rounsevell^1,3, ¹School of Geosciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom, ²Global Academy of Agriculture and Food Security, The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian, United Kingdom, ³Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Atmospheric Environmental Research (IMK-IFU), Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, ⁴Land Economy and Environment Research Group, SRUC, Edinburgh, United Kingdom

Abstract

Animal products, that is, meat, milk, and eggs, are important components in global diets, but livestock dominate agricultural land use by area and are a major source of greenhouse gases. Cultural and personal associations with animal product consumption create barriers to moderating consumption and hence reducing environmental impacts. This chapter reviews alternatives to conventional animal products, including cultured and imitation meats and insects (i.e., entomophagy), and explores the potential change in global agricultural land requirements associated with each alternative. The chapter considers and compares the agricultural land area given shifts between conventional animal product consumption or to one of these alternative products. The analysis uses stylized transformative consumption scenarios where half of current conventional animal products are substituted to provide at least equal protein and calories.

Keywords

Land use; animal products; livestock; dietary change; entomophagy; cultured meat; food security

Outline

• 1.1 Introduction 2
• 1.2 Human Appropriation of Land for Food 4
  • 1.2.1 Allocating Areas for Food Commodities 5
  • 1.2.2 Allocating Areas for Animal Feed and Pasture 6
  • 1.2.3 Assessing the Land Use Impact of Different Diets 7
• 1.3 Global and Country-Level Consumption Patterns and Trends 7
  • 1.3.1 Intercountry Variation in Appropriation of Land for Food 7
  • 1.3.2 Changing Dietary Patterns 9
• 1.4 Alternatives to Current Animal Products 12
  • 1.4.1 Insects 13
  • 1.4.2 Cultured Meat 13
  • 1.4.3 Imitation Meat 14
  • 1.4.4 Aquaculture 14
• 1.5 Comparison of Land Requirements 15
  • 1.5.1 Alternative Animal Product Scenarios 15
  • 1.5.2 Insect Consumption 17
  • 1.5.3 Cultured (In Vitro) Meat 17
  • 1.5.4 Imitation Meat 17
  • 1.5.5 Aquaculture 18
  • 1.5.6 Conventional Livestock Consumption Changes 18
  • 1.5.7 Waste and Other Dietary Change Scenarios 18
  • 1.5.8 Uncertainty Quantification 19
  • 1.5.9 Yields of Alternatives to Animal Product 20
  • 1.5.10 Land Requirements of Scenarios 20
  • 1.5.11 Discussion 24
• 1.6 Conclusions 32
• References 33

1.1 Introduction

Livestock provides a quarter of all the protein (and 15% of energy) consumed in food, but also creates substantial environmental impacts (FAO, 2012; Herrero et al., 2016). The area of global pasture is more than twice that of cropland, with livestock animals additionally consuming around one-third of the crops harvested as feed (FAO, 2006). Despite rises in crop yields and in the efficiency of livestock production, global agricultural land area has been expanding, increasing by 464 Mha between 1961 and 2011 (Alexander et al., 2015). Land use change in recent decades has accounted for 10%–12% of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions, and one-third since 1850 (Houghton et al., 2012; Le Quéré et al., 2015). Livestock production also contributes to atmospheric greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, due to methane from enteric fermentation (presently 2.1 Gt CO₂ eq/year; Gerber et al., 2013), and nitrous oxide emissions from fertilizer use on pasture and croplands in fodder production (Smith et al., 2014). In total, livestock is responsible for 12% of global anthropogenic GHG emissions (Havlík et al., 2014). A larger global population consuming a diet richer in meat, eggs, and dairy (Popkin et al., 1999; Keyzer et al., 2005; Kearney, 2010; Tilman et al., 2011; Bodirsky et al., 2015) has meant that agricultural land use change in the past 50 years has been dominated by the expansion of livestock production (Alexander et al., 2015). Besides the direct GHG emissions, agriculture also has large indirect emissions (e.g., from agrochemicals production and fossil fuel usage) (Smith and Gregory, 2013). The combination of land use change and other emissions increases the share of agriculture in all global anthropogenic GHG emissions to between 17% and 32% (Smith and Gregory, 2013). Therefore changing demands on agricultural production, and in particular for animal products (i.e., meat, milk, and eggs), has the potential to substantially alter GHG emissions (Bustamante et al., 2014; Havlík et al., 2014). Additionally, the sparing of agricultural land would provide options for further climate change mitigation measures, including afforestation or bioenergy (Humpenöder et al., 2014; Henry et al., 2018).

The projected rise in global population and higher per capita rates of animal product consumption, arising from higher incomes and urbanization, suggests that livestock production will continue to increase (Tilman et al., 2011). Changes in production practices and animal genetics that increase efficiencies may help to offset some of the potential land use and associated environmental impacts (Le Cotty and Dorin, 2012; Havlík et al., 2014). Substantial research attention has been given to supply-side responses, including expanding land in agricultural use and increasing food yields, especially crops (e.g., closing the “yield gap” or “sustainable intensification”) (Foley et al., 2011; Mueller et al., 2012; Kastner et al., 2014; West et al., 2014); or the potential benefits and trade-offs associated with increasing livestock intensities (Davis et al., 2015; Herrero et al., 2016; de Oliveira Silva et al., 2017). Nevertheless, demand-side measures to reduce animal product consumption may be necessary to meet climate change targets (UNFCC, 2015; van Vuuren et al., 2018), while helping to achieve food security (Smil, 2013; Bajželj et al., 2014; Meadu et al., 2015; Lamb et al., 2016). High levels of meat consumption are also detrimental to human health, with links to obesity, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer (Popkin and Gordon-Larsen, 2004; Hu, 2011; Bouvard et al., 2015; Cesare et al., 2016). Despite both the health and environmental benefits, changing consumer preferences toward a low meat diet is difficult because of cultural, social, and personal associations with meat consumption (Graça et al., 2015; Macdiarmid et al., 2016). Although there is some evidence for increasing rates of vegetarianism and reduced meat diets in western countries (Vinnari et al., 2010; Leahy et al., 2011), the global average per capita rate of animal product consumption has continued to increase (FAOSTAT, 2015a).

Analyses of the sustainability of the food system that do consider dietary changes tend to do so through an exogenous wealth-based factor, and anticipate continuations of current dietary trends (Schmitz et al., 2014; Engström et al., 2016a). However, diets and the food preferences that shape them do not necessarily follow fixed trends. Instead, they alter over time, influenced by technology, policies, and changes in social norms (e.g., Hollands et al., 2015). Modeling work has been done to project the impact of alternative assumptions regarding future diets (Stehfest et al., 2009; Popp et al., 2010; Haberl et al., 2011; Bajželj et al., 2014), and the ability of the agricultural system to supply the global population with a diet containing adequate calories has also been considered (Cassidy et al., 2013; Davis et al., 2014). Further studies in this area have taken a life cycle analysis (LCA) approach that typically consider either GHG emissions, energy or water requirements for individual commodities (Carlsson-Kanyama and González, 2009; Marlow et al., 2009; González et al., 2011; Pelletier et al., 2011).

Studies of the food system that include the impact of dietary change typically assume th...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright
• List of Contributors
• Preface
• Chapter 1. Sustainable Proteins Production
• Chapter 2. Insects as a Source of Sustainable Proteins
• Chapter 3. Microalgae as a Potential Source of Proteins
• Chapter 4. Plant-Based Proteins
• Chapter 5. Protein Isolates From Meat Processing By-Products
• Chapter 6. Proteins From Fish Processing By-Products
• Chapter 7. Whey Proteins
• Chapter 8. Bioanalytical Aspects in Enzymatic Protein Hydrolysis of By-Products
• Chapter 9. Production and Bioengineering of Recombinant Pharmaceuticals
• Chapter 10. Stability of Proteins During Processing and Storage
• Index