Marine Ecotoxicology

Current Knowledge and Future Issues

Julián Blasco, Peter M. Chapman, Olivia Campana, Miriam Hampel

• Publisher: Academic Press
• Year: 2016
• ISBN:
  9780128033722
• Topic: Biological Sciences
• Subtopic: Environmental Science
• Index: Biological Sciences

Marine Ecotoxicology: Current Knowledge and Future Issues is the first unified resource to cover issues related to contamination, responses, and testing techniques of saltwater from a toxicological perspective. With its unprecedented focus on marine environments and logical chapter progression, this book is useful to graduate students, ecotoxicologists, risk assessors, and regulators involved or interested in marine waters.

As human interaction with these environments increases, understanding of the pollutants and toxins introduced into the oceans becomes ever more critical, and this book builds a foundation of knowledge to assist scientists in studying, monitoring, and making decisions that affect both marine environments and human health.

A team of world renowned experts provide detailed analyses of the most common contaminants in marine environments and explain the design and purpose of toxicity testing methods, while exploring the future of ecotoxicology studies in relation to the world's oceans. As the threat of increasing pollution in marine environments becomes an ever more tangible reality, Marine Ecotoxicology offers insights and guidance to mitigate that threat.

• Provides practical tools and methods for assessing and monitoring the accumulation and effects of contaminants in marine environments
• Unites world renowned experts in marine ecotoxicology to deliver thorough and diverse perspectives
• Builds the foundation required for risk assessors and regulators to adequately assess and monitor the impact of pollution in marine environments
• Offers helpful insights and guidance to graduate students, ecotoxicologists, risk assessors, and regulators interested in mitigating threats to marine waters

Chapter 1

Contaminants in the Marine Environment

D. Álvarez-Muñoz¹, M. Llorca², J. Blasco³, and D. Barceló^{1,2 1}Catalan Institute for Water Research, Girona, Spain ²IDAEA-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain ³Institute for Marine Sciences of Andalusia (CSIC), Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain

Abstract

This chapter presents an overview of the different groups of chemical substances that pollute the marine environment. Metals, persistent organic contaminants, and emerging organic contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), surfactants, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), pesticides, dioxins, per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFASs), brominated flame retardants (BFRs), endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs), pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), marine biotoxins, nanomaterials, polydimethylsiloxanes (PDMS), and microplastics are included. Their main sources of contamination and physicochemical properties are described, as well as the most used analytical techniques for their detection and quantification in the marine environment. Their usual levels found in seawater, sediments, and marine organisms are reported, providing an exposure scenario to wildlife that will be further studied along the book.

Keywords

Analysis; Emerging contaminant; Levels; Metal; Occurrence; Persistent contaminant; Physicochemical properties; Sources

List of Abbreviations

AE Atomic emission

AEO Alcohol polyethoxylates

AES Alkyl ether sulfates

APCI Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization

APEO Alkylphenol polyethoxylates

APPI Atmospheric pressure photoionization

AS Alkyl sulfates

ASP Amnesic shellfish poisoning

AZP Azaspiracid shellfish poisoning

BFRs Brominated flame retardants

BPS Brominated polystyrene

CFP Ciguatera fish poisoning

CNMS Carbon-based nanomaterials

CPE Cloud point extraction

D3 Hexamethylcyclotrisiloxane

D4 Octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane

D5 Decamethylcyclopentasiloxane

D6 Dodecamethylcyclohexasiloxane

DAD Diode array detector

deca-BDE Decabromodiphenylether

dl Dioxin-like

DLLME Dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction

DSP Diarrheic selfish poisoning

DW Dry weight

ECD Electron capture detector

EDCs Endocrine-disrupting compounds

EFSA European food safety agency

ELISA Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

ESI Electrospray ionization

FLD Fluorescence detector

FOSA C8 sulfonamide

GBC Graphitized black carbon

GC Gas chromatography

GF-AAS Graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry

GPC Gel permeation chromatography

HBCD Hexabromocyclododecane

HRMS High-resolution mass spectrometer

HSSE High-speed solvent extraction

HTpSPE High through planar SPE

ICP Inductively coupled plasma

ICP-MS ICP-mass spectrometry

IS Internal standards

K_d Water–sediment partition coefficient

K_ow Octanol–water partition coefficient

LAS Linear alkylbenzene sulfonates

LC Liquid chromatography

LLE Liquid–liquid extraction

MAE Microwave-assisted extraction

MASE Microwave-assisted solvent extraction

MP Microplastics

MS Mass spectrometer

MSPD Matrix solid phase dispersion

NMs Nanomaterials

NPs Nanoparticles

NSP Neurologic shellfish poisoning

NTA Nanoparticle tracking analysis

PAHs Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

PBBs Polybrominated biphenyls

PBDEs Polybrominated diphenylethers

PCBs Polychlorinated biphenyls

PCDDs Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins

PCDFs Polychlorinated dibenzofurans

PDMS Polydimethylsiloxanes

PFASs Per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances

PFOS Perfluorooctane sulfonate

PLE Pressurized liquid extraction

PPCPs Pharmaceuticals and personal care products

PSP Paralytic shellfish poisoning

QuEChERS Quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe

SAX Strong anionic exchange

SBSE Stir bar sorptive extraction

SCX Strong cationic exchange

SFE Supercritical fluid extraction

SPE Solid phase extraction

SPME Solid phase microextraction

SWE Subcritical water extraction

TBBPA Tetrabromobisphenol A

TCDD 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin

TEF Toxic effect

TEM Transmission electron microscopy

TR-FIA Time-resolved fluoroimmunoassay

USASE Ultrasound-assisted solvent extraction

USE Ultrasonic-assisted extraction

UV Ultraviolet

WW Wet weight

WWTPs Wastewater treatment plants

1.1. Introduction

There are thousands of chemicals present in the marine environment due to human activities. In any industrialized society, a wide variety of contaminants are released to the environment every day from residential, commercial, and industrial uses. All of them make a complex mixture of hazardous chemicals that poses a potential risk not only to wildlife but also to human health through the possible ingestion of contaminated seafood. In this chapter a revision of the chemical substances that pollute the marine environment is presented. Metals, persistent organic contaminants, and emerging organic contaminants are included. Their main sources of contamination and physicochemical properties are described, as well as the most used analytical techniques for their detection and quantification in the marine environment. Their usual levels found in seawater, sediments, and marine organisms are reported, providing an exposure scenario to wildlife that will be further studied along the book. Besides, there is a special mention to microplastics, a group of contaminants that has generated an increasing concern in the scientific and general community. Regarding analytical approaches applied for measuring these contaminants, the use of nontarget techniques is pointed out as the way forward for future environmental monitoring studies.

1.2. Sources and Properties

1.2.1. Metals

The term “heavy metals” in ecotoxicology is related to environmental pollutants, whereas “trace metals” correspond to metals only at trace concentrations (0.01%). In many occasions, both terms have been employed for referring to the same metals. Nieboer (1980) proposed a chemical classification based on Lewis acid properties on metal ions, separating in Class A, B, and Borderline according to their degree of “hardness” or “softness” as acids or bases. Although this classification is well supported by chemical characteristics, the mentioned terms “heavy metals” and “trace metals” are frequently employed in the scientific literature. We are going to use the term “metals” for fitting metals with ecotoxicological relevance (Ag, As, Au, Bi, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ga, Hg, In, Ir, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Pd, Pt, Rh, Sb, Se, Sn, Ti, V, and Zn).

Metals occur in the rocks of the Earth and soil resulting from erosion processes. They can be transported by stream and rivers in dissolved form or associated to particulate matter. By atmosphere, they are transported on particulate matter, aerosols, and for some metals (eg, Hg) as vapor. Besides the natural source of metals, anthropogenic activities are responsible of metal inputs in the environment. The metals are introduced into seawater by river runoff, atmospheric transport, hydrothermal venting, groundwater seeps, and diffusion from sediment and transport for outer space: although only the first three fluxes are considered the main inputs. The relationship between fluxes and mass balances permit to establish the relationship between both metal sources. The major pathway by which anthropogenic metals enter in the ocean is via aeolian input. Libes (2009) summarized the natural and anthropogenic fluxes of metals showing the ratio between atmospheric/riverine inputs to the oceans, these ratios ranged between close 300 for Pb and 3.6 for As. In contrast to other pollutants metals are nonbiodegradables. Their fate, behavior, and toxicity are controlled by the chemical and physicochemical characteristics of marine environment. Metals can be adsorbed (adsorption process is defined as the reversible binding of a solute on a solid matrix in seawater or sediment) and partially scavenged by water column, and they settle down on the sediment. Colloid particles in the water column (clay, Fe and Mn oxides or hydroxides, calcium carbonate, and organic matter) act as reactive surfaces for binding metals. Nevertheless, metal speciation is the main process that controls its behavior, reactivity, toxicity, and ecological risk. Many elements dissolved in seawater can be present as various inorganic complexes; thus mercury is present mostly as HgCl₄²⁻ and other elements are as chloride complex mostly (AgCl₃²⁻, AuCl₂⁻) and others are as carbonate complexe...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright
• Contributors
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Chapter 1. Contaminants in the Marine Environment
• Chapter 2. Contemporary Methods for Statistical Design and Analysis
• Chapter 3. Dynamic Modeling for Uptake and Effects of Chemicals
• Chapter 4. Bioaccumulation and Biomonitoring
• Chapter 5. Biomarkers and Effects
• Chapter 6. Saltwater Toxicity Tests
• Chapter 7. Sediment Toxicity Testing
• Chapter 8. Mesocosm and Field Toxicity Testing in the Marine Context
• Chapter 9. Ecological Risk and Weight of Evidence Assessments
• Chapter 10. Global Change
• Index