Chapter 1
Zones of Proximal Development in Head Start Classrooms
Mrs. Miller sits with her three- and four-year-old children in front of her on the rug, holding up shapes for them to name and describe. She holds up a green circle and asks in a cheery voice, âWhat color is this?â Sam calls out, âBrown!â The teacher replies, âWhat color?â Adrian is eager: âRed!â Mrs. Miller says, âCome on now, look what I am holding. What color is this?â âBlue! Blue!â âNo, look at this; this is like the stoplight. Itâs green. This is a green circle. What is this?â The class responds together, âGreen circle.â âGood. Now whatâs this?â the teacher asks as she holds up a red square. A child calls out, âA stoplight!â âNo, what color?â âBrown!â âYou know this! Come on, what color is this?â Child: âRed!â Mrs. Miller: âYes, this is a red square! OK, time to go to the tables, and I want you to practice making the letter B. Take your finger and make the letter B in the air with me.â
The children do their best to mimic their teacherâs motions in the air. They then go off to tables, where they take up pencils that wobble and skitter about in their tiny hands. Their first attempts at letters are about as successful as their color naming. The next day when they come back to the rug, Mrs. Miller reviews the colors of the shapes with them, and then moves on to the names of the shapes. The lessons in shapes, colors, and forming letters occupy much of their school day and present a laborious curriculum challenge for both children and teacher in the weeks and months that follow.
The curriculum will continue with learning the names of the letters of the alphabet, their sounds, recognizing spoken words with the same initial or ending sound, counting the syllables in a word, counting to twenty, and reciting the names of the days of the week and months of the year. With each storybook, they will be taught to name it as âfictionâ or âinformational,â identify the author and illustrator and what work each of them do in writing the book, and they will answer questions about unknown words in the text. Teachers in todayâs schools are asked to maximize the time spent each day ensuring childrenâs mastery of basic skills and concepts central to school curriculum. The detailing of such knowledge that children are expected to have to be kindergarten ready is growing longer given the goals now identified in the new Common Core State Standards (2010).
Mrs. Miller has been criticized by school administrators at Green Park Elementary for too much rote drill of academic skills in her classroom, and, when she carries out activities like storytelling and story acting, as she did with Daniella and the class, for not focusing enough on academics. How are teachers to reconcile the seemingly conflicting goals to teach fundamental knowledge needed for school success while creating classroom settings that motivate and inspire young children to learn? Is there an educational path toward nurturing the literate, thoughtful, well-educated, articulate children we seek in our schools that does not leave us choosing between skill mastery and meaningful learning? Lev Vygotsky and Vivian Paley offer an alternative, and my work with Mrs. Miller helps to fill in the outlines of this new direction.
Using Vygotsky and Mrs. Paleyâs work together makes possible a new vision of what preschool and kindergarten education can look like. I believe that if Vygotsky had had the chance to observe Mrs. Paley at work with her children, he would have pointed immediately to pretend play, storytelling, and story acting as the key activities for realizing educational goals for young children in early childhood classrooms. Until Vygotsky, no other psychologist spelled out so clearly how imagination, words, and other children matter in an individual childâs learning. The words âLetâs pretend . . .â are symbolic mediators, tools for having ideas, clarifying them, and inventing new ones. Until Vivian Paleyâs writings, no one had given a rendering of how learning in pretend play by an individual child could be made possible by a teacher along with every other child in the group. Play, storytelling, and story acting as Mrs. Paley portrays them provide a pathway to educational achievement for not only children of middle-class educated families, butâas the experience of Mrs. Millerâs children at Green Park demonstratesâthose who grow up in poverty and are most in need of the promise that public education can offer.
Vygotskyâs Ideas about Learning
As an undergraduate in the early 1970s, I worked as a research assistant with Michael Cole, founder of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition that first opened at Rockefeller University in New York before moving to its current home at the University of California, San Diego. I worked with Michael Cole and teachers at a Head Start site in Harlem. Our goal was to explore ways to organize classroom learning to expand home and community conversational proficiencies and extend them to school learning.
One of the four-year-old Head Start children told her aunt one day while walking home from school, âI a tiger at home and a mouse at school.â When her aunt told the teacher this the next day, we recognized what the child meant: that she is quiet in school but lively and talkative at home. This child was articulating what William Labov (1972) was documenting with school-age children in Harlem. In school, when and if children spoke at all, it was in short, unelaborated sentences, while outside of school they engaged in more fully developed verbal interchanges, particularly with peers. What would it take for Head Start children to bring more aggressive outgoing verbal excitement and participation to their classrooms?
While studying childrenâs patterns of conversation inside and outside of their Head Start classrooms, Michael Cole was working on translating Vygotskyâs work for American audiences. One day he handed me a page he was working on.
A childâs mental development is a process that is no less simple than the growth of peas or beans in a garden; and well before the fruit appears, the gardener can discern the stages that lead to the appearance of the fruit. It would be a poor gardener who would judge the plants under his care only on the basis of the harvest, and equally deficient is the educator who is able to determine nothing more than what has already happened developmentally, that is, nothing other than a retrospective developmental summary. (From a draft manuscript for Mind in Society in 1974)
I could not get this image of educators as gardeners out of my mind. Skilled teaching would include being able to see the developmental history of children up to the current point in time, analyzing what is occurring in the moment and having an idea about the effect of current activities in shaping the childrenâs future. I was drawn to the idea of standing in the present and being able to say something about the past and future. What would it be like to be a teacher with a class of children having a view of where they have come from, and where they are headed?
One aspect of Vygotskyâs genius was in realizing that when describing development, two levels need to be specified, not just one. Educators and psychologists need to be watchful like the gardener describing what has already developed, what represents fully developed cycles of change and growth. In addition, they need to describe what is in the process of formation, âthe buds and flowersâ of development that anticipate the fruit to come in the harvest. Vygotsky was the first to develop a framework for thinking about a childâs actual level of development, those parts of a childâs thinking and development that have matured, and the potential, those aspects that are in the process of unfolding.
Vygotsky went further to specify how to detect the area between the two points of growth: the point of current mastery of skills and knowledge, and the area of the childâs newly emerging competence. He recognized the key to pinpointing what is strong and stable in a child and what is in the process of developing is to examine carefully what happens while the child is interacting with others. He defined this mental space as the zone of proximal development, and described it as âthe distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peersâ (Vygotsky 1978, 86). Thus, any childâs development is characterized by two benchmarks, one describing what a child can do on his or her own, and the other what he or she can do with help from othersâadults and peers.
Vygotsky proposes that all intellectual learning happens twice; first it is carried out between people, and then gradually it is more internally generated and sustained by each of us as individuals. He states, âIt is through others that we develop into ourselvesâ (1981, 161). The conversations in seminar rooms guided by Michael Cole and Sylvia Scribner and colleagues in the mid-1970s at Rockefeller University began to recognize that these principles are at work in young childrenâs schooling as well as in their home lives. The dynamics were waiting to be discovered in all arenas of life where families, communities, schools, and businesses organize themselves to benefit from teachers, coaches, mentors, trainers, and supervisors (Cole 1996).
The idea that other people are key to the unfolding of new thinking and learning in young children seems obvious, and yet in the mid-1970s, the work of Vygotsky and his colleagues began to transform the possibilities for how this process might unfold. Like other psychologists, Vygotsky said children construct knowledge, but he emphasized that children build thinking with other people first. He maintained that thinking is social (involves others), historical (done over time), and cultural (following the lines of group beliefs, values, and practices). An individualâs thinking and reasoning emerge from participating in society with family, community, and teachers and classmates in school settings. Individuals inside of groups construct patterns of personal and community thinking toward a current and future world for all involved.
Vygotsky offered for the first time a way to look at the connection between what a child does with others and how those interactions are utilized and reworked in a childâs mind as he or she figures out how things work in the worldâat home and in school. âDevelopment does not proceed toward socialization,â he proposes, âbut toward the conversion of social relations into mental functionsâ (1981, 165). Vygotsky also contended that new learning comes not just from adultsâa childâs peers, siblings, cousins, and neighborhood friends also contribute to opening up possibilities in a childâs unfolding future. The important message we can take from Vygotsky is that the pattern of interactions in the classroom matters: the conversations, arguments, debates, negotiations following tears, and the explanations. These interactions are the blueprint for the childâs thinking in the future.
Vivian Paley and Zones of Proximal Development
In 1974, I left New York to pursue graduate studies at the University of Chicago. Within a few short weeks of arriving, I met and observed Vivian Paley in her kindergarten classroom at the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools. I saw children making dioramas for figures they made out of clay and painting pictures at easels lined up alongside one another on one wall, where they could look at their classmatesâ experiments, copy one another, and talk about what they were trying out. There were children playing checkers, taking care of babies in the doll corner, and using wooden beads as their vegetables for chicken soup. Children were building elaborate forts in the block area and watching a goldfish as it darted around the thick green grass of the fish tank.
The volume of conversation in every corner of the classroom was deafening, like nothing I had ever heard among a group of children. Rather than teachers instructing, asking questions, and children answering, the dialogue flowed among children and their teacher. I had never seen children play in school with such intensity. It was not a part of my own kindergarten experience and not part of the Head Start programs I worked with in New York. I was overwhelmed with the possibilities.
As Mrs. Paley signaled the group to gather on the rug for music and stories, I saw another side of teaching children I had never heard of or thought possible. She was trying to tame a lion, searching for the wavelength of one of the most exciting and challenging children in the class, Wally, who was shaking the ground she stood on as a teacher. A few years later, she published her account of trying to understand this child in Wallyâs Stories.
When I began to play the piano, [Wally] leaps over Lisa and Rose to get to the piano first, but before the song is finished he is on the outer edge of the rug, growling.
âDonât make that noise, Wally,â I say.
âItâs a warning growl.â
âNot at piano time.â
âIâm guarding the lions,â he whispers. âThe growl means I hear a suspicious noise.â The children stop squirming and watch Wally as he crouches in concentration. Several boys copy his pose and give low growls. (1981, 7)
A week or two later during a visit to her classroom, I heard Mrs. Paley pick up on a comment from Wally to discuss with the children, which she also recounted in Wallyâs Stories.
One day at lunch, Wally says, âIâm going to become a mother lion when I grow up.â
âA mother lion?â I ask. âCan you become a mother lion?â
âSure. The library has everything. Even magic. When I am eight I can learn magic. Thatâs how.â
âWhy a mother lion?â
âBecause I would have babies and do the mommy work. They stay at home and take care of babies. Daddy lions go to work and have to walk fast.â
Deana has been listening. âPeople canât turn into animals.â
âThatâs true,â Wally says.
âYou changed your mind, Wally?â I ask.
âIt is true, what she said. But Iâm going to use magic.â
âOh, I didnât hear him say that.â Deana leans forward. âIf he uses magic he might. Maybe. Itâs very hard to do.â
Fred joins in. âI might become a daddy crocodile. Every time a person tries to kill them they can swat at their guns.â
âFred,â I ask, âdo you believe Wally can become a mother lion?â
âNo. Only if he practices very hard.â (1981, 7â8)
During a third visit to her classroom, I watched Mrs. Paley read the children a storybook that they then acted out. A shy and quiet child, Rose, took the role of a character âdrinking the sea.â The class had acted out The Carrot Seed (Krauss 1945) a few days before, and when Rose heard âsea,â she thought of the word âseedâ and proceeded to act out swallowing a seed. Her misunderstanding of this one critical word became evident while she stood in the middle of the rug with the whole class watching, a moment that could have ended in embarrassment and humiliation. Wally changed everything in a second, using his fluency in ...