Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy

Theoretical Foundations and Guidelines for Practice

Aubrey H Fine

• Publisher: Academic Press
• Year: 2010
• ISBN:
  9780123814548
• Edition: 3
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Psychotherapy Counselling
• Index: Psychology

In the 10 years since the first edition of Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy published, the field has changed considerably. The third edition of the Handbook highlights advances in the field, with 10 new chapters and over 50% new material. In reading this book, therapists will discover the benefitsof incorporating animal assisted therapy into their practice, how to design and implement animal assisted interventions, and the efficacy of animal assisted therapy with different disorders and patient populations. Coverage includes the use of AAT with children, families, and the elderly, in counseling and psychotherapy settings, and for treating a variety of specific disorders.

• Includes coverage of the use of cats, dogs, birds, and horses
• Discusses the "why" to use animals in therapy as well as the "how"
• Covers the use of animal-assisted therapy with different special populations and to treat different disorders

Part One

The Conceptualization of the Animal/Human Bond: The Foundation for Understanding Animal-Assisted Therapy

1 Understanding our kinship with animals

input for health care professionals interested in the human/animal bond

Aubrey H. Fine ^∗ , Alan Beck ^†

^∗California State Polytechnic University

^†Purdue University

Cats delight the eye by delicately walking among vases and sculpture or stalking a piece of string or exploring an empty paper bag. They are almost never self-conscious, and they do not use your direct gaze as an invitation. While walking in a park or wood, the wandering trail of the dog as it explores its environment gives our gaze a path to follow and a place to rest. The dog’s form and motion provide a foreground for the confusion of natural scenes and make visual choices for us. Alternatively, the sight of a sleeping dog can induce a sense of relaxation and well-being.

Between Pets and People: The Importance of Animal Companionship

(Alan Beck and Aaron Katcher, 1996)

1.1 Introduction

This introductory chapter provides readers not only with a basic foundation to appreciate and understand this unique kinship with all living creatures but also to discover the roots to the overwhelming growing interest in animal-assisted intervention (AAI). The chapter should also help solidify and clarify how the benefits witnessed within this unique bond have prompted numerous professionals to become more curious about the advantages of animal-assisted interventions.

It is apparent that dogs have been bred to coexist with their human counterparts and have filled many roles including herding, guarding, hunting, fishing and being our best friend (Clutton-Brock, 1995). Dogs have also been widely used as service animals, supporting the quality of life of people in need. There have been increasing insights into science’s current understanding of dog behavior and cognition. Perhaps one of the strongest insights that she discusses pertains to dogs’ ability to understand our behaviors (Hare, 2007; Hare et al., 2002). Horowitz (2009) explains that dogs’ strengths in communicating with humans relate to their predisposed ability to inspect our faces for critical information, for reassurance and for guidance. These traits are a definite asset for their interactions. In essence, dogs are keen observers of our reactions.

As time progresses, numerous interventions have developed employing a strong belief that relationships with animals contribute to the well-being of people. Although plagued with poor research, limited scientific evidence, animal-assisted interventions have grown, primarily on anecdotal outcomes. It is apparent that clinicians from numerous disciplines seem to have become enamored with the therapeutic roles that animals have in the lives of their patients. For some, their clinical interests stem from their personal convictions and attractions to animals, while others have been driven because of their perceived perception that animals may provide a useful alternative for clinical application.

1.2 Introduction to the human/animal bond (HAB)

The science of understanding the human/animal connection appears to have made some healthy steps forward since the National Institutes of Health (NIH) convened a workshop on the health benefits of pets in 1987 (NIH, 1987). In fact, in the fall of 2008, a similar meeting was held in Bethesda, Maryland, under the auspices of the National Institute of Child and Human Development addressing the need for clarity in research. Beck and Katcher (2003) point out that there is still a continued need to generate awareness of the importance of human/animal interactions and to truly study the specifics of the nature of this relationship. Nevertheless, some progress has been made identifying the physiological and psychological benefits that animals provide to our lives. Ever since the benchmark study by Friedmann et al. (1980) that demonstrated the health benefits of pet owners a year after being discharged from a coronary care program, the curiosity of HAB has grown steadfast. In fact, Phillips (2002) points out that, in the United Kingdom, pet ownership seems to result in savings to the national health program to the sum of about £600 million per year.

The interest in the human/animal connection has been heightened in the past few decades as a direct result of mainstream media’s and the popular press’s coverage of the impact of animals on humans’ lives. This coverage has increased the general public’s curiosity to our unique relationships with animals. It is evident that many people seem to romanticize their relationships with animals (Fine and Eisen, 2008). Although with good intentions, some treat animals as if they are part human. Jon Katz (2003) in his book The New Work of Dogs warns readers that pet owners use dogs to fill emotional gaps in their lives. He warns that dog owners have created exceedingly high expectations for emotional support they expect from their pets—forgetting that animals are not humans. Most scholars would argue that to consider their behavior human is an injustice and disrespectful to the animal. Although potentially harmful, anthropomorphism, and its way of thinking, does have its positives and negatives. Beckoff (2007) writes in New Scientist Life that he believes that while we should not impose human attributes onto animals, we may use anthropomorphisms as a strategy to identify commonalities and then use human language to communicate what we observe. According to Steven Mithen (1996) in his book The Prehistory of the Mind: An Exchange, without anthropomorphism, neither pet keeping nor animal domestication would ever have been possible. Serpell (2003) suggests that by enabling our ancestors to attribute human thoughts, feelings, motivations, to other species, the process and the way of thinking opened the gateway for some animals to become more readily accepted in human circles first as pets, and ultimately becoming domestic dependents. Serpell (1996) also argues in an earlier paper that most pet owners believe that their animals genuinely “love” or “admire” them. He suggests that the fact remains that without this belief system, the relationships most people have with pets would be essentially meaningless. The inheritances we share with non-human animals is the basis for all biomedical research and it is most likely the roots of behavioral processes; indeed, we have a great deal in common with the animals that share our lives (Beck, 1996). Perhaps anthropomorphizing our pets says something about our needs as humans (Fine and Eisen, 2008).

We are now entering a new crossroads in an era of scientific curiosity where there is a greater interest to define the underlying mechanisms of the bond. More scholars are now becoming curious about the underlying mechanisms that allow these interventions to be considered much more than puppy love. Although there are a wealth of testimonials documenting the significance of animals in our lives, Knight and Herzog (2009) point out that there is limited empirical research that has explored these relationships. Perhaps today’s glamor found in this unique affection/connection with animals and within animal-assisted interventions is directly related to the mystique of interspecies bonding. People seem intrigued with our similarities and differences and want to better understand our relationships with domestic and exotic animals.

According to the American Veterinary Medical Association (2007), there were 72 million dogs owned in the USA in 2006. Who would have thought that the pet industry would become an annual $45 billion industry in the USA where funds are spent to make the quality of life more comfortable for our companion animals (American Pet Products Association, 2009)? Within the report estimates have been made which articulate where the money is actually spent. The following highlights the findings:

• Food $17.4 billion
• Supplies/OTC medicine $10.2 billion
• Vet care $12.2 billion
• Live animal purchases $2.2 billion
• Pet services: grooming and boarding $3.4 billion

1.3 Defining the human/animal bond

Turner (2007) points out that the human/animal bond is a well-documented phenomenon that has been around since humans began domesticating animals. The strength of the human/animal connection allowed companion animals to quickly adopt roles as members of the family. Chandler (2001), Serpell (1996) and Flom (2005) have documented that the power of the human/animal bond has been described in sources as diverse as ancient literature, modern fiction, and research reports in the professional literature. All have pointed out there is something extraordinary about our relationships, which are quite different than conventional human relationships. Ian Robinson (1995) highlights the association between people and animals and provides some insights into these relationships. He suggested that the more similar the social organization and communication systems are of the two species, the more likely that each will understand the other better. He ends his essay by suggesting that our relationships ...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Table of Contents
• About the Editor
• Contributors
• Foreword
• Preface
• Part One: The Conceptualization of the Animal/Human Bond: The Foundation for Understanding Animal-Assisted Therapy
• Part Two: Animal-Assisted Therapy: Conceptual Model and Guideliness for Quality Assurance
• Part Three: Best Practices in Animal-Assisted Therapy: Guidelines for Use of AAT with Special Populations
• Part Four: Special Topics and Concerns in Animal-Assisted Therapy
• Index