AINA, an organization with programs âdeveloped to support democracy in Afghanistan through the development of media and cultural expression,â works, in part, by training male and female camera operators and video journalists (http://www.com/filmcatalog/makers/fm658.shtml, accessed 26 June 2006). The ethos behind the program is seemingly informed by scholarly and political concerns with agency in representation. This is an ethos that pervades the work of NGOs and scholars who provide to communities cameras, video, and other media alongside technological knowledge in the hope of enabling marginalized and âotheredâ peoples to participate in the construction of their identities and social situations.
Beyond Filmic Facticity
There is a danger whenever historians approach film criticism that their analysis will focus on the absence of historical accuracy and nuance. Though such criticisms are importantâparticularly when considering the ideological operation of film and its ability to generate a popular understanding of the past, place and peopleâthis collection seeks to engage film and history beyond the realm of fact. As such, the contributors to Sites of Production engage film scholarship and history across disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, literary studies, media and cultural studies, and history, as well as across film genres including documentary, independent shorts and features, Hollywood features, state-sponsored films, historical films, and popular-scientific productions. This collectionâs critical approach embraces textual workings, archival renderings, and the public operation of film. Though diverse in approach, all contributors take seriously the social and historical contexts of film, as well as the more textual relationship between the film and its audiences. Indeed, the multiplicity of audiences, be they dramatically different groups of people in one or more national locales or transnational audiences engaging films on a global scale, is a key concern for many of the authors.
In this volume, the contextual social and historical field refers to the broader socio-political and economic structures in which film is produced, circulated, and viewed, the aesthetic conditions and conventions, as well as the epistemological structures. Because we understand film and those associated with film industries at all levels to be involved in knowledge production, we directly locate our studies of film and history not only within the texts of film and the practices of history, but also within the discourses of film and history. Rudy Koshar argues that, while having its uses, an approach to film that either sees it as secondary illustrative material or a document to be read as archival material is too narrow because of the ways in which it diverts our attention away from understanding film as a way of constructing pasts (Koshar 1995: 155). Koshar draws upon Hayden Whiteâs notion of historiophoty, âthe representation of history and our thought about it in visual images and filmic discourseâ (White, cited in Koshar 1995: 57) to argue that âthe âconstructednessâ of film, its placement in a studio ârealityâ far away from the historical reality to which it gestures, could be used by historians as a springboard for considering the strategies, advantages, and shortcomings not of the film but of previous historical narratives, filmic and written.â
This book takes up White and Kosharâs challenge to see film as historiography. In this manner, this book understands the past to be a contentious domain mediated by memory, politics, and the particularities of the archival record. What is at stake, in our minds, are the ways in which film and history produce each other in historically specific and contingent contexts as narrative texts. Yet, we agree with Rebecca Karl (2001) that we must avoid facile observations in the study of either film or history that simply conclude that changing times demand changing uses or interpretations. In the specific contexts of revolutionary and post-revolutionary China, Karl insists that we consider the competing filmic visions of the Opium War produced in China in 1959 and 1997 within âthe time-space of a contemporary Chinese cinematic and historical imaginary, particularly by opening a discussion on the problem of âhistorical burdensâ or âburdens of historyâ as a central topos of Chinese discourse on modern historyâ (231). This call to think through cinematic and historical visions in relation to specific formulations of history and historical problems as political and literary motifs of space-based modernities informs many of the chapters in this book. The problematic of burdens of history shapes the shared concern of the contributors with the ways in which films engage with historical moments in their narrative and visual texts within and against the available imaginaries of their moments of production and circulation.
As discussed by John Mowitt (this volume), we are concerned not only with film as historiography, then, but also with film as historicity. That is, to use Philip Rosenâs formulation, âthe particular interrelations of the mode of historiography and the types of construction of history related to itâ (Rosen 2001: xi). For us this is a productive site of tension because it leads us to consider cinema and historiography as social and cultural operations as well as technological and epistemological structures. Contra Rosen, however, we choose not to undertake this through readings of historicity in film theory or specific films but rather by historicizing the specific social and cultural operations of film and historiography across global space and time. Film, like history, is an epistemological form of knowledge production and is often in narrative structure and production linked to projects of national modernization. But if we confine this observation to the study of historical film (Landy 2000) or the New History film (Rosenstone 1995), we privilege analytic frameworks that address the questions of how we can understand history in the visual media, and how the visual media writes histories. Excellent scholarship from precisely this perspective exists. But because we are interested in understanding how film and historiography operate as technological and epistemological forms in relation to projects of national modernizationâand challenges to themâthis volume takes a different entry point into the relationship between film and history than those works with which it shares a similar theoretical positioning. Rather than focus on the structures of visuality through which film mobilizes and enacts particular historical narratives and moments, we are concerned with the intersecting sites of production of film and history.
By highlighting sites of production we call attention to the multiple registers through which film, representation, and meaning operate. Without creating hierarchies of production, we want to emphasize the embodied craft of film production. This includes the communities of directors, actors, writers, camera operators, sound technicians, editors, and the like who make films (Buddle, Kulchyski), as well as the particular places of production (Hayashi, Naghibi). In addition, the practices and locales of screening and the contexts in which films are viewed/consumed (Chen, GĂłmez-Barris) also represent sites of historical production that are part of modern social practice and collective experience (Jancovich et al. 2003: 16). Another site of production stressed in this collection is the political economy of film production and its relationship to corporate, national and international networks of funding and development (Churchill, Austin-Smith, Stewart, Hoad). Finally, the representational operation of film and its ideological and historical use by various actors represents a site of production in its ability to generate meaning and agency within a cultural field (Mowitt, Crowe, Dueck). What all the contributors point out is that in the production of meaning and connection, film across these various sites has served cumulatively as a site for the praxis of modernity, a place where meaning and connection are mediated, cultural publics are generated, and the theories and ideologies of the modern are played out and experienced.
As film scholar Miriam Hansen has argued, âwhether we like it or not, the predominant vehicles of public memory are the media of technical re/production and mass consumptionâ (Hansen 1996: 310). Film in its public and collective nature is a particularly powerful medium of memory, of popular history, and historiography. Thus, film is also a classic product of modernityâa modernist form that is simultaneously a response and reaction, even a site of resistance, to the profoundly transforming, shattering, and dislocating effects of modern life. Critical scholarship of film in this register represents the historicization of what we are calling the âlived experience of modernity,â a method of scrutinizing modernity(ies)âs âplurality and complexityâ as well as its multiple operations (Hansen 1995; Jameson 2002; Berman 1988: 91; Mitchell 2000; Das 2000). In addition, the focus on site, on the physical and social location of film, as well as the productive realm of ideology, representation, and affect is part of this project of historicization. Though strategies of close textual reading and analyses of form are employed, the ultimate concern of this collection is on the contextual social field and the actors who produce, consume, and utilize film.
Forefront in the lived experience of modernity and the contextual social fields of film is the place of memory, even though historyâas a critical epistemological practiceâis too often forgotten. Here distinctions need to be made between what is meant by memory as well as the reasons we feel that distinguishing it from history is of importance. Memory has both subjective and collective meanings. On an individual level, common usage of the term memory encompasses the personal recollection of experiences, recalling lived experience and even bearing witness. Yet, personal memories of individuals can be collected and archived to provide an assemblage of experiential memory and a set of documents with which to reconstruct the past. Such an approach has been central to grassroots historians, human rights investigators, and documentary filmmakers. As such, memories can become an evidentiary base for history through an interweaving of mediated experiences with collective identity. In the early decades of the twentieth century the French sociologist Maurice Halbwachs developed the notion of âcollective memoryâ to understand the ways in which memory is historically situated and particular. âEvery collective memory,â he wrote, ârequires the support of a group delimited in space and timeâ (Halbwachs 1980: 48). Halbwachsâs formulation is useful in that it is a call to historicize memory and to position it within social and political contexts. In so doing, we are reminded that the interpretation of memoryâthe afterlife of an eventâis imbricated with identity and social class (Ross 2002).
Halbwachsâs attention to the connection between collective memory and groups delimited in space and time, as well as Rossâs attention to the after-lives of event, directly informs the focus of this volume on sites of production of film, history, and cultural citizenship. This book joins recent scholarship that works to understand the spatial and temporal histories within which film and cinema circulate and acquire meaning. Such approaches include a focus on the legal histories of cinematic spaces and their relationship to the city (Liang 2005), geographies of filmic communities and their lived identities (Widdis 2003), and the representability of time in photographic and cinematic technologies (Doane 2002). Along with these studies, this book emphasizes the relationship between the people who live in the times and spaces crosscut by cinema and the lived experiences of modernity mediated by cinema. Our approaches to this relationship range from studies of personal historicity as related to a specific film (Austin-Smith), to specific filmmakersâ mobilization of international funding, audiences, and transnational textual imagery (Stewart, Churchill, GĂłmez-Barris), to collectivities enabled through film production and circulation (Buddle, Chen, Kulchyski). Moreover, the studies and their specific conclusions underscore our belief that once we begin to analyze spatial and temporal histories of cinema as experiences of modernity we are also drawn into the terrain of states, citizens, and lived identities. We have chosen to think about how issues of state, citizen, and lived identity intersect with film and history through the conceptual framework of cultural citizenship.