William Shakespeare - Subject of the Crown?

Tudor and Stuart Sovereignty in Shakespeare's 'Problem-Plays': The Merchant of Venice, Macbeth, Measure for Measure & The Winter's Tale

Manuela Sonntag

• Publisher: Books on Demand
• Year: 2016
• ISBN:
  9783741245046
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Languages & Linguistics
• Subtopic: Linguistics
• Index: Languages & Linguistics

Shakespeare and his work have inspired many books by literary scholars and historians throughout the century. What can we know about a man of whom nothing is known, except what he chose to let his characters say and do? Can there really be any certainty about Shakespeare's opinions, thoughts, ideas, even on the most trivial matters? Isn't this a dangerous confusion of person and fiction?This essay will not try to find certainty among the many statements made about author and work over the years but try to relate some of Shakespeare's 'non-historical' plays to contemporary politics – one part dedicated to the English Renaissance as a century of change and progress, the other part literary analysis of Shakespeare's plays with consideration of this political zeitgeist. Shakespeare and his work have inspired many books by literary scholars and historians throughout the century. What can we know about a man of whom nothing is known, except what he chose to let his characters say and do? Can there really be any certainty about Shakespeare's opinions, thoughts, ideas, even on the most trivial matters? Isn't this a dangerous confusion of person and fiction?This essay will not try to find certainty among the many statements made about author and work over the years but try to relate some of Shakespeare's 'non-historical' plays to contemporary politics – one part dedicated to the English Renaissance as a century of change and progress, the other part literary analysis of Shakespeare's plays with consideration of this political zeitgeist.

Shakespeare’s Plays

Title page of the First Folio, 1623.
Copper engraving of Shakespeare by Martin Droeshout.

The Merchant of Venice

Among the problems one faces in dealing with The Merchant of Venice is the difficulty of sensing a whole, a harmony, in a play that seems to work so consistently with dichotomies;¹⁴⁸

The Merchant of Venice has a long history of criticism and production throughout the centuries and has undergone countless reinterpretations accordingly. Many critics assume that of Shakespeare’s plays only Hamlet has been enacted more often. The play itself evolved from a line of Shakespeare’s earlier comedies and takes up themes from older productions, like the fairy tale setting of Belmont and the disguised heroine¹⁴⁹ already featured in The Two Gentlemen of Verona. However, the change of production style according to phenomenons of zeitgeist is especially important for this play.¹⁵⁰ From the 19^th century onwards for example the change of presentation in the character of Shylock from villain to victim of the action is most noticeable – a similar development to the staging of Macbeth.

The Merchant of Venice is also the oldest of the plays that will be discussed in this second part of the essay and it is also the only one issued still under the reign of Queen Elisabeth. This is mainly due to the fact that Shakespeare’s literary fame had increased immensely and importantly by his publication of the two poems dedicated to the Earl of Southampton in 1593. This, for the first time in his playwriting career, put him in a position to attain a partnership in the Lord Chamberlains Men in 1595 and, as has been shown before, probably forged a closer connection to the court.

Date and Source

The patron of this group, Lord Leicester, had died shortly after the defeat of the Armada but his stepson, the Earl of Essex, remained an important figure both for Elisabeth and the theatre. During the time of his most pronounced popularity among the people of London – namely the ‘Raid of Cadiz’ 1596 – most secondary sources estimate the first production of The Merchant of Venice.

The Andrew, a ship mentioned by Salerio in Act I¹⁵¹ is supposed to represent the San Andrés, a ship captured by Essex during his campaign in Cadiz.¹⁵² This establishes a first connection between the play and contemporary political developments and between the figure of Antonio and the person of Essex, for his venture to Cadiz was economically no more successful than most of Antonio’s endeavours in the first part of the play.

Shakespeare’s main inspiration for The Merchant of Venice, however, presumably derived form an Italian novella¹⁵³ by the name of Il Pecorone about ‘Gianetto of Venice and the Lady of Belmont’. It is easy to see the connection of this story to the play, but nevertheless Shakespeare made several adjustments to fit it into the English renaissance society, so for example the casket plot was embedded into the wooing of Portia by her suitors. The idea of a golden, silver and lead casket may have come from the old Gesta Romanum¹⁵⁴, which had been revised and republished in England in 1595, and which provided a suitability test for brides-to-be in choosing between a golden, silver and lead vessel. This old Roman tradition was just perfect to replace the altogether more sexual indications of the original text, which would not have been tolerated by the London authorities. Nevertheless, it is not the suitability of the bride that is tested in The Merchant of Venice and it remains to be seen what indications this change bears concerning the situation of Portia and Queen Elisabeth. In addition, the change of dependency between Antonio and Bassanio also provides room for speculation, because it was changed from a godfather and godson to a ‘mere’ friendship. The bond plot of the original text between the merchant and the Jewish usurer remains however in place and it might have been the most attractive part for adoption in the political climate of the 1590ies. In 1594, the formerly Jewish royal physician Ruy Lopéz had been tried and executed for high treason. His charges were participation in a plot to poison Queen Elisabeth and collaboration with Spain. In the aftermath of this well-publicised trial, Christopher Marlowe’s Jew of Malta was replayed several times with great success. It is probable therefore that Shakespeare wanted to capitalise on the timely anti-Jewish propaganda, as […] The Merchant of Venice offers, through its characterization of Shylock, one of the most dangerous instances of cultural stereotype […]¹⁵⁵

Nevertheless, it has to be stated that the small community of converted Jews in London was, if not well respected, not completely outcast from the London society either. The fact that Dr. Lopez had long been the queen’s physician and that Queen Elisabeth even had a formerly Jewish lady-in-waiting¹⁵⁶ proves that. It has also to be recognized that Marlowe’s Barrabas, as the Jew of Malta, has much more in common with the alleged traitor Lopéz than Shylock – Barrabas, i.e., is a converted Jew and a prisoner. A definite change is also recognizable in the relation of the Jew and his daughter. While Abigail is happy to help her father and steal money for him, Jessica steals money from her father and is therefore abandoned. It will be analysed later on if this change could have some background in English history too.

Plot and Structure

The Merchant of Venice presents reader and audience with continuing contrasts and surprising combinations, like Venice and Belmont or Love and Money. On the whole it can not be denied that it must be considered a romantic play¹⁵⁷ about the power of friendship or the triumph of love. This fairy tale atmosphere Shakespeare conserved perfectly in plays like A Midsummer Night’s Dream is however disturbed by the realistic background of merchandise, ventures and financial enterprise in Venice. Of course, the Venice setting was already suggested in the original novella, but there also was a small community of Venetian merchants in London to provide the audience with some background information about the place. It is sometimes even suggested that these merchants were used as spies on the continent, for example by the Earl of Essex.¹⁵⁸

At the time The Merchant of Venice was written, the Republic was a legend for her independence, wealth, art, and political stability, her respect for law, and her toleration of foreigners. ¹⁵⁹

These legendary virtues of the Italian republic were in fact already crumbling in the Elizabethan Age but her popularity was yet untarnished by political reality. The rise of middle class merchants and capitalism in the Elizabethan England is mirrored in Shakespeare’s Venice, as are the nautical society, the dependence on foreign trade and the public masques and festivals. Nevertheless, the luxury and commerce of the Italian city creates an atmosphere of superficial friendship and insignificant pastimes, exemplified by funny but shallow characters like Gratiano. Shylock and his daughter also are ideally placed in the ghetto of Venice, as by a decree issued under King Edward I in 1290 no Jews were permitted to live in England that had not converted to Christianity.¹⁶⁰

In addition to that exotic and somewhat illusory setting, the background of the English theatre history provides the influence of mediaeval morality plays that is visible in the cruel and infidel nature of Shylock or in Portia’s demeanour as advocatus dei¹⁶¹, the bringer of mercy and justice in the trial scene. It must, however, be stated that the mutual hatred shown by Shylock and Antonio makes it difficult to project common villain-victim profiles on the trial scene. In a strict Christian setting, Antonio’s rejection of the infidel would have been fitting – his business with him and his lack of missionary Christian charity would not. The trial scene thus presents the murderous appetite of Shylock and opposes it, not with Antonio’s, but with Portia’s Christian grace and mercy.¹⁶²

This concept of equity as a legal equivalent of ...

Table of contents

• Table of Contents
• Introduction
• The Tudor and Stuart Age
• Shakespeare’s Plays
• Conclusion
• Annex
• Bibliography
• Copyright