GIS In Organizations

How Effective Are GIS In Practice?

Heather Campbell, I. Masser

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2020
• ISBN:
  9781000162691
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Biological Sciences
• Subtopic: Environmental Science
• Index: Biological Sciences

In placing these questions at the heart of their book, the authors set out to stimulate and contribute to the great debate: despite the enormous growth in the acquistion of GIS technology by business and government, little is known about the impact this leading- edge technology is having.
Using case studies in a local government context, this book explores the performance of GIS in practice on the premise that any technology-led innovation will only "work" if the proper organizational and management support, infrastructure and culture exist. In doing so the authors draw on the experiences from organizational theory and management science in their quest to cast light on the processes influencing the implementation of technologies such as GIS.

CHAPTER 1
Introduction

Technology: innovation or irrelevance?

The ability to innovate is generally regarded as fundamental to organizational survival. Governments throughout the world are expending considerable resources searching for technological innovations and novel techniques which it is assumed will increase industrial as well as administrative competitiveness. However, many seemingly good ideas remain in the workshops of their inventors. Some innovations diffuse rapidly throughout society while other equally worthy developments progress little further than the laboratory. These observations question the extent to which diffusion is dependent upon the inherent technological characteristics of a particular innovation. At least as important appear to be the cultural, organizational and institutional contexts into which such a development is to be embedded (Bijker, Hughes and Pinch 1987; Dunlop and Kling 1991a; Goodman, Sproull and Associates 1990; Rogers 1983). It is, therefore, crucial that consideration is not only given to the elegance of the technology but the interrelationships between organizations and innovations if greater understanding is to be achieved of how a potentially good idea becomes a facility taken for granted. As a result, this study seeks to investigate how organizations respond to innovations and, more particularly, what processes influence the effective implementation of new technologies in real-world situations.

The innovation that provides the focus for the study is geographic information systems (GIS) and the organizational context is British local government. GIS are essentially a set of computer-based technologies which are able to store, display, manipulate and analyse spatial data, most particularly map-based information. Arguably, manual forms of GIS have been available for many decades and computer-based systems since the 1960s. However, recent advances in the data-handling capabilities of computers, most particularly the speed with which large data sets can be processed, led GIS to become commercially viable during the 1980s. As a result, the concepts on which GIS are based are by no means new, but the speed and flexibility with which it is now possible to exploit the geographical properties of information has produced an innovation that has prompted considerable interest as well as prophetic claims for the technology. It is not only vendors, manufacturers and researchers who have been enthusiastic about GIS technologies; developments in this field led the British government to commission an inquiry chaired by Lord Chorley to investigate the issues surrounding the handling of geographic information. The landmark report of this Commission was published in 1987 with the significance of the technological advances they had seen encapsulated in the following now legendary statement: 'Such a system is as significant to spatial analysis as the inventions of the microscope and telescope were to science, the computer to economics and the printing press to information dissemination. It is the biggest step forward in the handling of geographic information since the invention of the map' (Department of the Environment 1987, para. 1.7).

The conceptually simple capacity to be able to unleash the power of computers to process spatial data and thereby to use geography as the main organizing principle for database design has an appeal which, in conjunction with the map-based outputs, started to capture the imagination in the 1980s. GIS technologies were promoted as offering opportunities to improve efficiency by reducing the duplication of spatial data sets and at the same time ensuring that all sections of an organization had access to the same up-to-date information. Furthermore, GIS were envisaged as contributing to organizational effectiveness through the provision of basic data as well as stimulating more complex analyses which would enhance decision-making capabilities at operational, managerial and strategic levels. Fundamental to such claims was the capacity of GIS to integrate data sets from a wide variety of sources. As a result, GIS were regarded as facilitating data sharing which in turn would lead to more informed decision-making and logically better decisions. Some went further, suggesting that the greater availability of information would result in a democratization of decision-making and improvements to the quality of life of the whole of society.

The optimism associated with the potential of GIS mirrors much that has been written in relation to information technology in general. Underlying such sentiments is a strong feeling that improvements in social and economic conditions are dependent upon technological innovations, most particularly developments in computing (Feigenbaum and McCorduck 1991; Naisbitt 1984; Toffler 1980). Implicit within the Utopian views of technology is an assumption that society is entering, or perhaps has already entered, an information age, in which economic prosperity as well as harmony within society depends upon the ability to process vast reserves of information. Toffler (1980) terms this the 'Third Wave', a period in which successful market economies are distinguished by the rapid diffusion of computers. As a result, it is predicted that mechanical production methods will gradually be replaced by programmable technologies. The increasing availability of information in association with the ability to exploit these resources to the full is not only envisaged as a vital contributor to economic success but also as liberating those who have traditionally felt excluded from the decisions that affect their lives. For example, in the workplace computerized technology has been conceptualized as 'informating' activities, thereby removing the tedium from many tasks and dispersing power more widely (Zuboff 1988).

Despite claims about the potential opportunities that will result from the introduction of new forms of computer-based systems such as GIS, very little is known about the actual impact that this technology is having in practice. As yet, attention has largely concentrated on enhancing technical know-how in relation to handling geographic information. Technological innovation is, however, of little value if the product of such developments proves problematic to implement or is regarded as an irrelevance by potential users. In contrast to the expectations of the Utopian conceptions of technology, evidence suggests that technical elegance is no guarantor of widespread utilization. For example, studies investigating the introduction of computer-based systems, mainly within the private sector, have shown that marginal gains, unforeseen problems or even complete abandonment of the project are more common than success (Dunlop and Kling 1991c; Eason 1988; Lucas 1975; Lyytinen and Hirschheim 1987; Moore 1993; Mowshowitz 1976). The objective of this book, therefore, is to examine the relationship between an innovation and the organizational context in which it is to be embedded. Is the prime determinant of the widespread diffusion of a new technology its technical capabilities or are other factors responsible for the outcome of this process? Is the dawning of the information age, if that is what is taking place, about technological innovation or the capacity of organizations to absorb change?

GIS technologies provide an excellent case study for such an investigation. They exemplify the characteristics of the new generation of programmable technologies which some suggest will transform society. The potential of this technology has been eloquently outlined but how are users reacting in practice? It is this group, whose concerns have little to do with GIS and are therefore agnostic and perhaps even sceptical about the merits of changes to existing work practices, that will make the ultimate judgement as to its value. Will their verdict be innovation or irrelevance, and what processes will contribute to this assessment?

The current stage of development of GIS technologies makes this an opportune time to examine the experiences of users. The initial purchase of any new product is usually associated with a great deal of enthusiasm and expectation. It is therefore important before embarking on an investigation of this type that sufficient time has passed to allow a realistic assessment to be made. In the case of GIS such circumstances now appear to have been fulfilled as early adopters introduced the technology into their organizations in the mid-1980s. Such organizations are by their very nature often viewed as atypical. However, it is now possible to draw on the experiences of what may be termed the second generation of GIS adopters, without falling into the trap of being forced to focus on the very early stages of implementation in these organizations.

The organizational environment that provides the backcloth for the introduction of GIS, is British local government. If computer-based technologies are about facilitating information handling, where better to examine the input of one group of these innovations than in a set of organizations whose raison d'être is focused on consuming, processing, managing and manufacturing information. As Hoggett rather neady puts it, 'what poultry is to Kentucky Fried Chicken, information is to local government' (Hoggett 1987, p. 226). Furthermore, not only does information appear to be the focus of the majority of activities of local government but also, according to the Chorley Report, at least 60 per cent has a geographical component (Department of the Environment 1987). Local government, therefore, seems to be an appropriate context in which to examine the potential of GIS and more particularly the interrelationships between innovations and organizations.

The process underlying much of the proceeding discussion has been the concept of diffusion. The remainder of this chapter will consider the nature of diffusion in relation to a technological innovation such as GIS. This will be followed by an overview of the structure of the book.

Diffusion

Diffusion is the fundamental process that is responsible for the transfer of innovations from the workshops of their inventors to becoming a daily part of the lives of a large section of society. There appears to be a great deal of ambiguity surrounding the precise meaning of diffusion. It is possible to identify two groups of researchers for which the concept of diffusion has provided a focus to their studies. First, geographers have shown some interest in the spatial aspects of diffusion. Their principal concern has been to investigate the effect of distance from the source of an innovation on the speed and extent of adoption (see, for example, Hägerstrand 1952 and 1967). It is, however, arguable that it is the second group of researchers based in the sociology discipline who have made the most significant contribution to our understanding of the process of diffusion (see, for example, Eveland, Klepper and Rogers 1977; Rogers 1983 and 1986).

Rogers in his overview of research in this field defines diffusion as 'the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among members of a social system. It is a special type of communication, in that the messages are concerned with new ideas' (Rogers 1983, p. 5). This definition is important as it identifies a number of significant concepts in relation to diffusion. The first concerns the innovative nature of the product being diffused and therefore the uncertainty surrounding the consequences of adoption. The second important element of the definition is the stress placed on the whole role of communication channels as the means of relaying information about the merits and deficiencies of an innovation. These channels include both the mass media and the opinions of peers, in particular what are termed 'opinion leaders'. Rogers also emphasizes the significance of time as well as the nature of the social system in which the process of diffusion is located. The concepts embedded within this overall conceptualization are important, as the speed and extent of the diffusion of an innovation is linked to social and political processes rather than simply the inherent technical worth of the product.

Practitioners in this field acknowledge, however, that there are a number of limitations to the scope of much of the existing empirical research in this field (Rogers 1993). For instance, implicit within much of this work is a pro-innovation bias, that is to say an underlying assumption that the adoption of the particular development under consideration will necessarily benefit all concerned. Perhaps, more importantly in relation to a technology such as GIS, there has been a tendency to concentrate on relatively simple forms of diffusion involving decisions based solely on individual adopters. Ryan and Gross's (1943) landmark study, for instance, concentrates on the adoption of hybrid seed corn by farmers in two Iowa communities. Even in relation to the recent developments in computing and telecommunications capabilities, diffusion studies have tended to concentrate on products designed to meet the needs of the personal end of this market. For example, Dutton, Rogers and Suk-ho Jun (1987) have examined trends in home computing. Technologies such as GIS, however, present a more complicated situation, for rather than being adopted by one individual, the unit of analysis is usually an organization. Decisions in this type of context are therefore the result of the interaction between complex sets of personal, organizational and even cultural interests. Furthermore the purchase of the innovation is not the culmination of this process as there is no guarantee that the equipment that has been acquired will actually be utilized within the host organization. Consequently, it would appear that diffusion should be conceptualized as consisting of, first, a set of processes associated with the propensity of individuals or organizations to adopt a particular technology, and second, a set of processes that influence the effective utilization of an innovation. While the processes involved in both are likely to be closely related and mutually dependent, a useful conceptual device would be to view the former as essentially external to the organization while the latter is concerned with diffusion within the organization.

A further complication in devising an operational conceptualization of diffusion is that there is a tendency for it to be synonymous with terms such as adoption, implementation, routinization and utilization without any clear distinction as to the relationship between these concepts. Given that the innovation providing the focus for this study is GIS, it seems to be appropriate to regard diffusion as an umbrella concept: a term that encapsulates the processes of awareness raising, adoption, implementation, routinization and utilization and an assessment of the consequences of the entire exercise for the individuals and organizations concerned (see Figure 1.1). It is important, however, that while all these elements are regarded as an inherent part of diffusion, the overall process is not considered to be linear in nature. It is a complex and problematic process in which aspects of implementation may well precede adoption: while one section of an organization may be routinely utilizing a technology, another may be unaware of its existence. Furthermore, in the case of a programmable technology such as GIS it is probable that there will be repeated cycles of development, learning and use as circumstances change or users become more demanding. Diffusion is not therefore a once-and-for-all process.

Figure 1.1 A conceptualization of diffusion

In contrast to much of the existing research on the diffusion of innovations, this study not only examines the speed and extent of GIS adoption within one organizational grouping but more particularly concentrates on the processes that influence whether effective utilization is achieved. Leonard-Barton (1988) notes that there has been a tendency for research to focus on the initial decision to adopt a new form of technology, ignoring the critical phase of implementation which underpins the transition from untested expectations to a taken-for-granted technology. This emphasis on exploring the relationship between organizations and innovations complements and supplements work on GIS which is currently under way, focusing on the traditional concerns of diffusion studies, most particularly the external communications channels through which knowledge about an innovation diffuses (see Assimakopoulos 1995). An increasing number of high-profile and often extremely expensive cases of information systems that have had to be abandoned point to the problematic nature of implementation (South West Thames Regional Health Authority 1993). The Audit Commission (1994) in a recent report has highlighted the poor return that many public organizations such as health and local authorities have made on their investments. It is also noticeable that the private sector is not immune from such experiences, as the now infamous events surrounding the introduction of the London Stock Exchange's TAURUS system testifies (McRae 1993). Examples such as these emphasize the importance of extending the scope of research on the diffusion of innovations beyond the point of adoption. The centrality of implementation to this research makes it worth outlining briefly the concepts that will be developed more fully in the second part of the book.

Implementation

Innovations depend on the process of implementation to become absorbed into the organizational context in which they have been introduced. As a result, if the extent of adoption provides a benchmark as to whether users accept a new product to have potential, implementation determines whether it is utilized. Traditionally, implementation has been envisaged as one phase within a linear progression from initial awareness about an innovation through to routine use. In common with the more general process of diffusion, such an approach increasingly appears to be an oversimplification. For instance, the implementation may take place repeatedly in different sections of an organization, or in some cases even within the same organizational unit. However, the critical feature of this whole process is the difficult task of managing change.

The introduction of an innovation into an organization necessarily implies change. Implementation is a means through which such adaptations are transmitted to the often wary members of the organization. Interpretations as to the significance and complexity of this process vary. Overall, there appear...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• List of figures and tables
• Acknowledgements
• 1 Introduction
• 2 Technology and organizations
• 3 Perspectives on implementation
• 4 Organizations and GIS: a case study of British local government
• 5 The diffusion of GIS in British local government
• 6 Reinvention and utilization: GIS in practice
• 7 GIS implementation: a problematic process
• 8 GIS: innovation or irrelevance?
• References
• Index