They [the Hero Twins] descended into Xibâalbâa,
quickly they descended the face of a stepped cliff.
They passed then
into the changing of the rivers
and canyons.
Just through the birds they passed by,
the ones called throng birds.
They passed over then along Pus River
and along Blood River,
intended as traps for them by those of Xibâalbâa.
But they were not bothered,
and just on their blowguns they passed over them.
They went on to then arrive
at the four-way crossroads,
but [unlike their father and uncle] they knew then about the roads of Xibâalbâa:
the Black Road,
the White Road,
the Red Road, and
the Green Road
[and, thus, were not defeated like those before them].1
Xeqej chi Xibâalbâa,
libâaj chiâ xeqaj chuwa kumuk
Xeâikâow chiwi kâut
chi upam jal jaâ
siwan.
Xa chuxoâl tzâikin xeâikâow wi,
are ri tzâikin molay kibâiâ.
Xeâikâow chi kâut pa Puj Yaâ
pa Kikâ Yaâ;
châakbâal ta ke chi kikâuâx Xibâalbâa.
Mawi xikiyikow,
xa chi rij wubâ xeâikâow wi.
Xeâel chi kâu apanoq
pa kajibâ xalqâat bâe,
xa xketaâm wi kâut kibâe Xibâalbâa:
Qâeqabâe,
Saqibâe,
Kaqabâe,
Raxabâe.
Production of Theology at a Crossroads, a Xalqâat Bâe
Cosmogonic narratives of indigenous peoples of the Americas typically address the origins, structures, and dynamics of the cosmos and all the worlds and other phenomena within it. A common narrative involves a set of twins as culture heroes who finish setting in place the âproperâ cosmological order in preparation for humanity. As told in its oldest and most extant form by any indigenous American group, the Popol Wuj, or âBook of the Council,â by the Kâicheâ Maya and quoted above, tells of the Hero Twinsâ journey into the otherworld, Xibâalbâa, and of their arrival at a four-way crossroads, a kajibâ xalqâat bâe. Previous travelers, such as their own father and uncleâJun Junajpu and Wuqubâ Junajpu, respectivelyâhad also traveled to Xibâalbâa but chose the wrong path and were thus defeated. Like them, the Hero TwinsâJun Ajpu and Xbâalankeâhad to choose a âcorrectâ way at the crossroads.2 Since the choice of their father and uncle, for example, had introduced corporeal death into the cosmos, the Hero Twinsâ choice at the crossroads likewise involved great risk.3
Similar to the predicament of the Hero Twins, the Highland Maya of Guatemala and Mexico, like other indigenous peoples of the Americas, have often found themselves at a set of crossroads as they have negotiated, and continue to negotiate, the intersections between their indigenous cultural or religious practices and those inherited or adopted from a Christianity, an intersectionality that involves risks theologically, politically, socially, and economically. Variants of a Christianity have been present throughout modern Maya history, beginning with Hispano-Catholicism after the turn of the sixteenth century, and later with various strands of Protestantism, including later charismatic Christianity, by the turn of the twentieth century.
Despite that long religious juxtaposition, studies among the Maya have only recently begun to reveal the risks that Maya have made at such crossroads between Christianity and their indigenous worldview, which since the 1990s is increasingly referred to as Maya Spirituality (kojbâal in Kâicheâ).4 Furthermore, studies of religious, political, and wider cultural movements by contemporary Maya, while quick to make connections from the prehispanic Maya or to upstream ethnographic data back through the colonial era, often fail to develop a fuller context of the decades of first contact based on the surviving records. Indigenous agency and reasoning is often portrayed as either ending or at least permanently corrupted by the early 1500sâa degradation catalyzed in large part by Christian missionaries. Indeed, non-Christian Maya religiosity like kojbâal has been denigrated since the sixteenth century by Hispano-Catholic and later Protestant missionaries as âidolatry,â âpaganism,â or âsorcery.â
As survivors of ethnocide since the 1520s and of genocide in the 1970s and 1980s, the Maya of Guatemala, including Maya Christians, have often questioned the adequacy of Christian resources for and responses to those two violent bookends of modern Maya history.5 Since the arrival of Europeans, Maya have interpreted such events and made their claims in part from the conceptual and symbolic resources of what may now be referred to as kojbâal. In the past few decades, Highland Maya intellectuals have advocated for an affirming and constructive construal of kojbâal as the distinct religious conventions identified by Highland Maya that continue to serve as a reservoir of Maya thought in general and as the core of an indigenous social movement. Maya âspiritualityâ and its notions of space, time, purpose, authority, agency, language, and culture continue to operate among present-day Highland Maya. Yet the Maya assert that they do not have a âreligionâ but rather a âspiritualityâ because they do not yet have a âtheology,â conceived as metadiscourse on âthe religious,â broadly identified but still more narrowly as the formal, highly systemic (e.g., doctrinal or dogmatic), apologetic, or confessional thought in the advocacy of a particular religion. Ironically, even those present-day non-Christian Maya intellectuals and their non-Maya allies active in the Maya Movement often implicitly understand religious terms like âtheologyâ as distinctively Christian categories.
In fact, it may simply be impossible to study any Native American religion as unengaged with a postcontact Christianity. With rare exceptionâas in some of the archaeological records and precontact writings that survived the bonfires and timeâall Native American religious texts (written and verbal), symbols, and practices are postcontact. They and their interpretations are affected and infusedâfor good and for ill, enriched and corrupted, by indigenous practitioners and nonnative scholarsâwith at least Christianity if not also strands of Islam, Judaism, native west African, or Asian Pacific religions. And even those ancient precontact records can only be read and heardâagain, by indigenous practitioners and nonnative scholars alikeâthrough postcontact eyes loaded with oneâs own implied presuppositions of what qualifies as a âgodâ versus a âspiritâ; or an animism or shamanism versus a kind of monotheism or a polytheistic pantheon; or informed by childhood catechism or Sunday School lessons if not the cultural dominance of Christianty; or post-Renaissance knowledge of Greco-Roman myths; or anti-Spanish imperial âblack legendâ histories; or even contemporary social science theories, such the latent trinitarianism in the semiotics of Charles Sanders Peirce. Critical study of religion of indigenous peoples in the Americas requires critical understanding of the development of Christianities, and study of Christianities in the Americas requires appreciative and detailed understanding of the worlds of the indigenous peoples of the Americas.
Yet, until recently, continuities or discontinuities between present-day, distinctively non-Christian Maya ceremonial practices and discourse often regarded as âtraditionalâ have received mostly sociocultural and ethnographic study but little historiographic study, except for some analyses that relate current Maya traditionalism to a limited sample of precolumbian and early colonial texts, such as the Popol Wuj. Even less study is devoted to the lengthy, complex, and often mutual engagement between Maya traditionalism and Christianities. Furthermore, often when the history of engagement between a Christianity, such as a Catholicism, and...