Part One
Philosophical Practices, Philosophy as Practice
1
Foucaultâs Reinvention of Philosophy as a Way of Life:
Genealogy as a Spiritual Exercise
Michael Ure
This chapter examines Michel Foucaultâs research on Greco-Roman philosophy. What is the significance of his âtripâ to antiquity for modern ethics? The first section surveys his itinerary. It shows how he challenges conventional histories of philosophy by conceiving ancient philosophies as practices of the self or ways of life rather than simply as theoretical doctrines. Like Ilsetraut and Pierre Hadot, Foucault contributes to modern ethical reflection by rediscovering this ancient philosophy as an ethical work of the self on itself. Ancient philosophy is meant to form rather than merely inform the subject.1 Foucault adds an important qualification to this claim. Ancient philosophy, he suggests, also invented a new cultural type: viz., the philosophical hero. In doing so, he implies, it sublimated the archaic ideal of a beautiful existence exemplified by Greek heroes like Achilles and Odysseus. Cynicism, he claims, epitomized this ancient philosophical heroism. Foucault shows how ancient Cynics aimed to realize the beauty of invulnerability or sovereignty, but through the new means of living the truth. Cynics, as he conceives them, linked together the beautiful existence and the true life by publically displaying and boldly proclaiming their total sovereignty. Living the truth made the Cynic the true sovereign.
In the second section, I briefly examine why Foucault aims to reinvent philosophy as a way of life. Foucault argues that from roughly the sixteenth century onward, this model of ancient philosophy was practiced only on the margins of academic philosophy. Despite its marginality, he nevertheless claims that ancient philosophy, especially Cynicism and Roman Stoicism, constitutes a decisive moment in the history of thought that is âstill significant for our modern mode of beingâ (Foucault 2005: 9). One of Foucaultâs central claims about the significance of ancient philosophy is that it may help us address what he sees as a contemporary problem: the absence of a principle of ethics in the context of skepticism about founding our actions on religious decrees or allegedly scientific notions of normality.2 Foucault, we might say, looks to antiquity to develop a contemporary ethics without absolute obligations or sanctions. This a relatively uncontroversial description of Foucaultâs late work, even if his ambition of reconstituting the ancient philosophical model remains deeply controversial.3
In the final section, however, I question whether Foucaultâs own philosophical ethos reclaims, as he implies, âthe living substance of ancient philosophyâ (Foucault 1986: 9). It shows that he conceives Nietzschean genealogy as his own philosophyâs âspiritual exercise.â Genealogy, as he puts it, aims to introduce discontinuity into our being. This section demonstrates that Foucaultâs genealogical practice of self-dissolution necessarily opposes the basic goal of ancient ethics: self-sufficiency or sovereignty. Taking this Nietzschean slant on Foucaultâs philosophical ethos suggests that it does not refashion the ancient practices of the self. Rather, I argue that Foucaultâs trip to antiquity unintentionally brings to light how contemporary subjectivity is partly constituted by a âchiasticâ crossing of the ancient ethics of self-completion and the modern ethics of self-dissolution.
Philosophical Heroism
Foucaultâs intellectual histories apply what he calls a genealogical knowledge or effective history, which, as he defines it, âis not made for understanding, but for cuttingâ (Foucault 1984: 88). âKnowledge,â as he explains, âeven under the banner of history, does not depend on ârediscoveryâ, and it emphatically excludes the ârediscovery of ourselvesâ. History becomes âeffectiveâ to the degree that it introduces discontinuity into our very being ⌠âEffectiveâ history deprives the self of the reassuring stability of life and nature ⌠It will uproot its traditional foundations and relentlessly disrupt its pretended continuityâ (Foucault 1984: 88). Foucaultâs genealogy lacerates our subjectivity by exposing these ontological discontinuities. In his late works, Foucault applies this genealogical method specifically to the history of ancient philosophy.
In contrast with other major interpretive traditions, by adopting a genealogical approach to the history of philosophy, Foucault aims to show that what counts as âphilosophyâ is historically variable. In the early 1980s Foucault characterized his overarching research program as the history of â âthe games of truthâ ,â through which âbeing is historically constituted as experienceâ (Foucault 1986: 6â7). Foucault distinguishes among different philosophical practices in terms of the different relationships they established between truth and subjectivity. Foucault therefore rejects the idea we can treat ancient philosophies as early stages in the progressive development of universal reason, or analyze their arguments as answers to perennial philosophical questions. He eschews what we might broadly call these Hegelian-Marxist and contemporary âanalyticâ approaches to the history of philosophy. Foucaultâs goal is to circumscribe the historically specific forms and practices of ancient philosophies rather than seeing them through the lens of these modern models of philosophy.
Following Pierre Hadot, Foucault distinguishes ancient philosophies as practices of the self or as ways of life.4 Hadot had sought to recapture ancient philosophy âin its original aspect: not as a theoretical construct, but as a method for training people to live and look at the world in a new way. It is an attempt to transform mankindâ (Hadot 1995: 107). Foucault affirms Hadotâs central claim that âphilosophy in antiquity was a spiritual exerciseâ (Hadot 1995: 104).5 In his lectures during the 1980s at the Collège de France, he brings into sharp relief how the schools deployed both philosophical doctrines and spiritual exercises as means of giving form to life. Foucault identifies ancient philosophy itself as a kind of bio-technique, or a work ancient philosophers undertook on themselves to transform their own mode of being. As he conceives it, ancient philosophy is a voluntary and deliberate form of self-cultivation; the goal of the ancient philosophical schools is not theoretical knowledge alone, but the transformation or conversion of the self to realize a higher or âotherâ mode of existence (e.g. Foucault 2011: 244â5, 287). For this reason, he does not formulate a history of philosophical theories or doctrines, nor does he focus on analyzing the validity of the arguments of ancient logic, physics or ethics. Rather, as he declares, he seeks to sketch âa history of forms, modes, and styles of life, a history of the philosophical life ⌠as a mode of being and as a form both of ethics and heroismâ (Foucault 2011: 210).
We can begin to unpack the significance Foucault attributes to his research for modern ethics by briefly sketching his account of the genesis of this ancient model of philosophy as technology of the self or spiritual exercise. To understand ancient philosophy on its own terms and distinguish it from later models of philosophical practice, he argues, we need to recognize how it recast fundamental aspects of archaic, pre-philosophical culture. Let us briefly consider his account of how ancient philosophy transmuted archaic cultural practices. In The Hermeneutics of the Subject (1981â2) lecture series, Foucault argues that we can conceive ancient philosophy as a synthesis of the philosophical goal of delimiting what makes it possible for the subject to access the truth and what he identifies as the âpre-philosophic themeâ of âspiritualityâ (Foucault 2005: 15). How is âspiritualityâ woven into the fabric of ancient philosophy? Foucault identifies two distinct elements of pre-philosophic âspiritualityâ: (a) the conditions of access to truth and (b) the effects of obtaining truth.
In the first case, he defines spirituality as âthe search, practice and experience through which the subject carries out the necessary transformations on himself in order to have access to the truthâ (Foucault 2005: 46). Spirituality establishes a particular relationship between truth and subjectivity: viz., âthere can be no truth without a conversion or transformation of the subjectâ (Foucault 2005: 15). âSpirituality,â he explains, âpostulates that the truth is never given to the subject by right ⌠[or] by a simple act of knowledge ⌠that for the subject to have the right of access to the truth he must be changed, transformed, shifted, and become ⌠other than himselfâ (Foucault 2005: 15). Ancient philosophy, he claims, took up the archaic practice of âspiritualityâ by assuming âthat a subject could not have access to the truth if he first did not operate upon himself a certain work which would make him susceptible to knowing the truthâa work of purification, conversion of the soul by contemplation of the soul itselfâ (Foucault 1984: 371). Here Foucault embroiders on Pierre and Ilsetraut Hadotâs account of ancient philosophy and its âspiritual exercises.â
Both take the view that spiritual exercises or technologies of the self make possible âa profound transformation of the individualâs mode of see...