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Coleridgeâs Gendered Revolt against Materialism: Textual Plasticity in âThe Eolian Harp,â Rime of the Ancient Mariner, and âKubla Khanâ
In 1807, two events marked Coleridgeâs rejection of the stultifying binaries that informed his personal and literary relationships during his early years in the Lake District: his separation from his wife, Sarah Fricker, and his ambivalent âTo a Gentlemanâ following Wordsworthâs recitation of The Prelude.1 While the 1795 âEolian Harpâ had already marked Coleridgeâs doomed new marriage to Sarah as the forced yoking of two disparate sensibilities, the poem âtoâ Wordsworth reflects the impossibility of Coleridgeâs literary union with Wordsworth who insisted upon a subjectivity âwedded toâ the âgoodly universe.â2 âTo a Gentleman,â Coleridgeâs poetic response to hearing Wordsworth read his then thirteen-book âPoem on the Growth of an Individual Mind,â appears on the surface to extoll Wordsworthâs genius and to excoriate Coleridge himself. However, his ambivalence surfaces gradually; he follows the hyperbolic praise of the opening lineâs epithets, âFriend of the Wise! And Teacher of the Good!â with a sequence of dubious characterizations of Wordsworthâs poem: the âTheme hard as high!ââitself damning praiseâemerges as the essence of Wordsworthâs inner/outer binary: âNow in thy inner life, and now abroad, / When Power streamâd from thee, and thy soul received / The light reflected, as a light bestowâdâ (To a Gentleman, ll. 17â19). When Coleridgeâs self-pity does emerge in the poem, it has already been problematized by the inherent criticism of Wordsworth: âFears, self-willâd, that shunnâd the eye of Hope; / And Hope that scarce would know itself from Fearâ (To a Gentleman, ll. 67â8). Perhaps nowhere does Coleridge better articulate his perverse self-destructiveness, marked by its disruption of the categorical imperative to choose the path of righteousness.
The poem ends in ambiguous prayer that further complicates the earlier self-pity: âI sate, my being blended in one thought / (Thought was it? Or Aspiration? Or Resolve) âŚ. / And when I rose, I found myself in prayerâ (To a Gentleman, ll. 109â12). Neither confirming nor negating self-pity, this parenthetical catalogue of questions throws into ironic ambiguity the final line, in which Coleridge finds himself âin prayer.â Coleridge appears as troubled as the Wedding Guest of Rime of the Ancient Mariner, left by the Mariner stunned and solitary rather than embracing the pious community represented by the âkirkâ; âTo a Gentleman,â in turn, looks ahead to the âsecondary imaginationâ of Biographia Literaria XIII; there, Coleridge declares that the artistic impulse is one of disassembly and which, significantly, precedes Coleridgeâs most direct denunciation of Wordsworthian âfancyâ in chapter XIV. Returning to the end of âTo a Gentlemanâ from the vantage point of Coleridgeâs definition of secondary imagination, Biographia Literaria can be seen to complicate further rather than resolve the catalogue of questions, the continuum from chapters XII to XIV marking the trajectory from Coleridgeâs rejection of associationism to the focus on Wordsworthian imagination reduced to âmere Fancy.â Coleridge uses this term in chapter XIII to dismiss the associationism Wordsworth himself learned from Coleridge as a lower faculty than either primary or secondary imagination. Ending âTo a Gentlemanâ in prayer is a variation on a pattern in Coleridgeâs conversation poems of ending with a benediction that ostensibly provides resolution but is made ironic in the context of the poems, including âThe Eolian Harp,â âFrost at Midnight,â and âDejection.â
Two years after he wrote âTo a Gentleman,â Coleridge wrote in his notebook that the âorgans of motion & outward action perform their functions at the stimulus of a galvanic fluid applied by the Will, not by the Spirit of Life that makes Soul and Body oneâ (Notebooks II, 2557). The passive voice of this statement draws out its self-contradiction: If outward actions result from a âgalvanic fluid,â it would appear that Will is of little consequence to what appears an instinctively biological cause-and-effect phenomenon. Not only is Will paradoxically passive in applying such fluid to stimulate motion, but Coleridge distinguishes Will from the âSpirit of Lifeâ that, by contrast to Will, makes âSoul and Body one.â The statement thus epitomizes Coleridgeâs pull toward nondualism as a âSpirit of Lifeâ held in contradistinction with mechanistic corporeality.
Coleridge not only rejects materialism, but he ultimately moves beyond the German transcendentalism that had been his means of rejecting associationism. The 1819 statement can thus be seen as a reiteration of the paradox at the heart of Coleridgeâs definition of the artistâs recreative work in chapter XIII of Biographia Literaria. Secondary imagination, Coleridge writes there, is the faculty that âdissolves, diffuses, dissipates, in order to re-createâ (Engell and Bate I, 304). The violence inherent in dismembering the world of phenomena as a means of recreation has more in common with Mary Shelleyâs 1816 Frankenstein than with Wordsworthian poetics or the German transcendental philosophy that Coleridge ultimately rejects by chapter XIII.3 Indeed, Frankenstein enacts the central idea of Coleridgeâs 1798 notebook entry, for it is Frankensteinâs monomaniacal will that stimulates the âgalvanicâ tissue of body parts to recreate life in a ghastly parody of the artistâs work.4 The interplay of these three textual meditations on the creative actâthe notebook entry, Frankenstein, Biographia Literaria XIIIâdemonstrates the potential for a literary engagement that defies the binary systems inherent in segregated studies of gender, genre, and generation.
Attending to Coleridgeâs wrestling with systematic binaries from the hindsight of Biographia Literaria shifts the discussion of his literary biography. Doing so in turn challenges the scholarly binary implicit in the separate categories of Coleridgeâs poetry and philosophy.
Articulating the frustration for scholars in the pursuit of a full representation of Coleridge, Alethea Hayter notes that privileging certain passages to support oneâs interpretation ignores those that do not: âTry as one may, no book like the present one is quite objective. Quotations chosen, as one thinks, to illustrate the tendencies of someone elseâs intellect may in fact back-project their light on to shallow, odd, or unseemly corners of oneâs own mindâ (217). Of course, this dictum applies to all literary analysis in varying degrees; however, it resonates particularly for Coleridgeâs multifaceted oeuvre.5 A double-edged consideration of his corpus does not mean blending the two disciplines as though they constitute a harmonious whole. Instead, a more accurate representation emerges of Coleridgeâs struggle to resist the common foundation upon which the Western traditions of poetry and the religiophilosophical rest, out of which, in turn, emerges his creation of modern literary criticism. This chapter returns to Coleridgeâs early literary productions to find the seeds of resistance to the very materialist traditions even as he ambivalently embraced them in poetry and prose.
Dilation and Contraction in âThe Eolian Harpâ
A starting point for studying Coleridgeâs early ambivalence toward British materialist philosophy and its attendant binaries is his 1795 poem, âEffusion XXXV,â revised as âThe Eolian Harpâ in 1803, in which Coleridge describes a momentary liberation from the constriction of a âworld so hushâdâ (l. 10). A tight-fitting subjectivity that opens this so-called honeymoon poem is the casualty of a marriage with erotic, epistemological, and artistic implications.
Though the most overt marriage in the poem is to his new wife, a âpensiveâ Sarah Fricker, there are even more vexed, albeit less explicit, marriages troubling Coleridge here that would take him more than two decades from which he would extricate himself: namely, those to materialist philosophy and, by extension, to William Wordsworthâs poetics of memory. Here as well as in his other fragments, Coleridge revolts against rather than seeks to fulfill the classical standards of wholeness, harmony, and coherence, a view that runs counter to traditional readings such as that of J. C. C. Mays, who suggests that Coleridge revised âThe Eolian Harpâ in 1797, 1817, and 1828 âto wrestle its components into a more balanced whole by means of large excisions and interpolations,â suggesting that âunsuccess ⌠drove him onward to the endâ (qtd. in Halmi et al., 10).
Coleridgeâs belated divorce decree is found buried midway through Biographia Literaria, twenty years later. At the end of the first volume, chapter XIII, Coleridge articulates in two brief paragraphs a dissection of imagination distinguishing that which exists in all human perception and that which is only to be found in the artist. Though secondary imagination has already been mentioned, it is worth examining in the entirety of its definition vis-Ă -vis primary imagination and fancy:
While secondary imagination is an âechoâ of the primary, Coleridge distinguishes it as a recreative faculty. That the process may be ârendered impossibleâ is an ironic reference to his own inability to embody the poetical character as he represents it, for instance, in the final stanza of âKubla Khan.â6 The statement that follows this definition of primary and secondary imagination is most damning of both Wordsworthian poetics and his own earlier embrace of associationism: the secondary imagination, that recreative faculty of artists, soars above the âfixities and definitesâ of mere fancy, relegated to a level below both primary and secondary imagination and therefore a derogatory term to which Coleridge finally reduces âthe law of associationâ; Coleridge infers that Wordsworthâs âordinary memory,â as mere Fancy, receives âall its materials ready made [sic]â (Biographia Literaria, 489).
The nature of the divide between Coleridge and Wordsworth can be foreseen in their earliest dialogues in prose and poetry. That Coleridge called his 1796 poems âEffusionsâ speaks to his early resistance to Wordsworthâs poetics.7 Coleridgeâs source for the term may be William Preston whom Halmi et al. quote as defining âlove poetry as a âspontaneous effusion of a mind wholly occupied by a single idea, careless of rules, little studious of poetic fame, and desirous only of expressing its emotionsââ (5, n. 3). There are several ideas in Prestonâs statement that reverberate with irony as Coleridge and then Wordsworth echo them.
Defending his poems against charges of egotism in his 1796 Preface to Poems on Various Subjects, Coleridge distinguishes âeffusion,â or the outpouring of oneâs subjectivity, from egotism that, he claims, âis to be condemned then only when it offends against time and place as in an History or an Epic Poem. To censure it in a Monody or Sonnet is almost as absurd as to dislike a circle for being roundâ (qtd in Halmi et al., 4). Here Coleridge suggests that, whereas subjectivity should not enter narrative, it defines lyrical poetry. That he compares the latter to a circle is telling: Unlike traditional narrative, the lyrical is outside the realm of time and space. The circle image suggests that lyrical poetry is more than subjective; it is nonbinary, a merging of subject and object. In light of Coleridgeâs distinction between a nonbinary subjectivity and egotism, when one revisits Wordsworthâs often-cited definition of poetry in the 1800 Preface to Lyrical Balla...