Paul as a Problem in History and Culture

The Apostle and His Critics through the Centuries

Gray, Patrick

• Publisher: Baker Academic
• Year: 2016
• ISBN:
  9781493403332
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Biblical Studies

As one of the most significant figures in the history of Western civilization, the apostle Paul has influenced and inspired countless individuals and institutions. But for some, he holds a controversial place in Christianity. This engaging book explores why many people have been wary of Paul and what their criticisms reveal about the church and the broader culture. Patrick Gray brings intellectual and cultural history into conversation with study of the New Testament, providing a balanced account and assessment of widespread antipathy to Paul and exploring what the controversy tells us about ourselves.

Part 1
Anti-Paulinism through the Centuries

1
The First Hundred Years

The Problem of Paul in the New Testament

Criticism of Paul shoots up during the Enlightenment and reaches full bloom in the centuries following it. The view of Paul as the betrayer of the movement started by Jesus is one species of this broader ideological genus. Less appreciated is the lengthy germination process preceding its recent flourishing. Buds and sprouts of varying robustness and tenacity appear sporadically, sometimes being weeded out and sometimes going dormant until a more hospitable season. Later anti-Paulinism derives from a surprisingly ancient stock, the seeds of which can be found as early as the first century. This chapter will survey the diverse forms this hardy perennial takes in the earliest surviving evidence: the NT. On the surface and lurking just underneath, the NT itself reveals a remarkable amount of material indicating that Paul was not universally admired. His teachings, his manner of life, and his personality are all called into question implicitly or explicitly in a wide range of texts. From the outset, Paul evokes strong reactions from everyone he encounters.

The Acts of the Apostles

The author of the Acts of the Apostles is writing some time later than the figure he portrays as one of the heroes of his narrative.1 Although his historical reliability has been called into question, much of his testimony accords with the testimony of Paul’s own letters and parallels many of the criticisms made in later centuries. The apostle Paul becomes a problem, it seems, even before he becomes the apostle Paul. Christians surely viewed him with fear and trembling, if not hatred and disgust, when he was persecuting them, though no contemporaneous record of this opinion survives.2 One suspects that trepidation about this former persecutor may have lingered among Christians, if only for a short while (Acts 9:21, 26). No sooner does he join the Christians than he is targeted for harassment, receiving death threats from Jews and Hellenists alike (9:23, 29; 13:50; 14:2, 19). His general attitude toward the law of Moses and, in particular, his liberal stance on the necessity of circumcision is what irks his Jewish critics most.3 (To his likely surprise and chagrin, in Acts 16:3 Timothy learns that Paul’s position on the latter is not hard and fast.) He is a pest and a rabble-rouser, apt to disturb the peace in ways that cause trouble for the Jews (24:5). Hints that Paul does not always get along well with others may also be detected (15:39). Many gentiles have a more favorable impression of Paul, but much more typical is the response of the Roman procurator Festus: “You are out of your mind” (26:24). The Greek philosophers with whom he debates in Athens scoff at the same thing, that is, his bizarre insistence on the resurrection of Jesus (17:18–20, 32; cf. 24:20–21; 25:18–19). Demetrius and his fellow silversmiths in Ephesus have more philistine complaints: Paul’s preaching has turned so many people away from idol worship that the silversmiths’ profit margin has shrunk (19:23–27).

The Pauline Letters

The letters complement this picture on several points. They may even provide the names of some of Paul’s earliest critics.4 Repeated references to the opposition he encounters, whether violent or not, and the defensive tone he frequently adopts suggest that Paul was a polarizing figure from an early period.5 In adopting the slogan “Christ crucified,” Paul is fully aware that his central message will meet with disapproval from virtually every conceivable direction (1 Cor. 1:23). It is “a stumbling block to Jews and foolishness to Gentiles.” Information from the letters can be divided into two categories: evidence of (1) personal attacks on Paul’s character, missionary modus operandi, or personality; and evidence of (2) theological or ideological criticism of his teaching.6

1. Nowhere is the ad hominem nature of first-century anti-Paulinism more evident than in 2 Corinthians. That Paul and his Corinthian correspondents have a fraught relationship is clear from numerous comments (2:1–3; 7:5). With access to only one side of the conversation, it is still possible to learn a great deal about the negative impression Paul created among many of his contemporaries. He could come across as indecisive and lacking in gravitas (1:17; 11:16; cf. 1 Cor. 2:2–5). Given his remarks in 2 Cor. 10:1, it appears that he cuts a much less imposing figure in person than in his letters. “His letters are weighty and strong,” they say, “but his bodily presence is weak, and his speech contemptible” (10:10). He mentions his lack of training as a public speaker, a shortcoming that may have been accentuated through comparison with other teachers who arrived in Corinth during his absence (11:5–6). The Corinthians, perhaps underwhelmed by his lackluster rhetorical performance, want proof that Christ is speaking in Paul (13:3; cf. 1 Cor. 7:40). For this reason, his boasting is perplexing and perturbing to some members of the community (2 Cor. 10:8). Paul’s response—more boasting (1:12; 10:15; 11:10, 16–18, 21, 30; 12:1, 5–6, 9)—may not have endeared him to everyone in Corinth.7

Also apparent are questions about Paul’s integrity and the legitimacy of his ministry. Itinerant preachers customarily presented letters of recommendation upon arriving at a new locale, and Paul addresses murmurs about his failure to conform to this practice (2 Cor. 3:1; cf. Acts 28:21). He rejects the insinuation that he has somehow overstepped his authority in his dealings with the Corinthians (2 Cor. 10:14). His insistence in 1:12 that he always has spoken with frankness and sincerity and his explicit remarks in 12:16 indicate that someone has accused him of duplicity.8 Intimations that Paul was accused of being dishonest or disingenuous are likewise found in his declarations that he is telling the truth and not lying (Rom. 9:1; 2 Cor. 11:31; Gal. 1:20; 1 Tim. 2:7). These criticisms may have originated with a small group of opponents in Corinth or with the opponents to whom he refers, perhaps sarcastically, as “super-apostles” (hyperlian apostoloi: 2 Cor. 11:5; 12:11).9 The vehemence of Paul’s rejoinders, however, bespeaks a fear on his part that they are gaining traction in the larger congregation.

Perhaps the strangest element for many readers to encounter is the suspicion of Paul’s refusal to accept financial support from his converts, a policy he adopts in his dealings with the Thessalonians as well (2 Cor. 11:7–8; 12:13; cf. 1 Thess. 2:9; 2 Thess. 3:7–9). This criticism is related to the collection he is taking up for the poor in Jerusalem, which is drawing blame (2 Cor. 8:20–21). When he brings the matter up in 2 Cor. 12:16, the picture comes into clearer focus in a way that resonates with many modern readers: they may believe that the “collection” is a scam designed to line his pockets. To those who are maligning him, he emphatically replies, “We have wronged no one, we have corrupted no one, we have taken advantage of no one” (2 Cor. 7:2).

Many of these themes are already found in Paul’s earlier correspondence with the Corinthians. He acknowledges that he is held in disrepute and that, by the world’s standards, he looks like a fool (1 Cor. 4:9–10). Furthermore, his decision not to ask for financial support, defended at length in 1 Cor. 9, raised the eyebrows of many Corinthians. Ancient city dwellers looked askance at wandering teachers, who might support themselves in various ways, each of which carried its own special stigma.10 One might beg like the Cynics, whose lifestyle nauseated the average Greek citizen. Sophists had better personal hygiene, but their custom of taking a fee for their lectures gave them a bad reputation similar to that often borne by lawyers today. Having the support of a wealthy patron provided more stabil...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Acknowledgments
• Abbreviations
• Introduction
• Part 1: Anti-Paulinism through the Centuries
• Part 2: Anti-Pauline Contexts, Subtexts, and Pretexts
• Conclusion
• Bibliography
• Scripture and Ancient Writings Index
• Author Index
• Subject Index
• Back Cover