The Divine Christ (Acadia Studies in Bible and Theology)

Paul, the Lord Jesus, and the Scriptures of Israel

Capes, David B., Evans, Craig A.

• Publisher: Baker Academic
• Year: 2018
• ISBN:
  9781493413324
• Topic: Theologie & Religion
• Subtopic: Biblische Studien

For the past century, scholars have debated when and how a divine Christology emerged. This book considers the earliest evidence we have, the letters of Paul. David Capes, a veteran teacher and highly regarded scholar, examines Paul's letters to show how the apostle constructed his unique portrait of Jesus as divine through a rereading of Israel's Scriptures. This new addition to the Acadia Studies in Bible and Theology series is ideal for use in courses on Paul, Christology, biblical theology, and intertextuality.

1
“Lord” and “LORD” in the Bible

As we begin, it is appropriate to consider the ways in which various Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek words have been translated in the English Bible tradition. This is useful because most of us will continue to read the Bible primarily in translation. There is nothing wrong with that, of course, because we have many excellent translations. But it is helpful to understand what lies just beneath the surface of a translation in the original languages, especially when it comes to matters as significant as divine names and titles. But as with all things biblical, we ought not confine ourselves to part 2 of the Christian Scriptures—that is, the NT—because it is important to see these names, titles, and honorifics diachronically, that is, through time.

We consider first how the English word “lord” in its uncapitalized and capitalized forms appears in Christian Scriptures. Now by Christian Scriptures we mean both OT and NT; but it is particularly the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible or OT that seems to have been formative in the minds of early Christians. Scholars today make a compelling case that if we want to understand early Christians’ engagement with Scripture, we must get up close and personal with the Greek version. This does not mean, of course, that what we find in the Hebrew Bible is inconsequential; as we will show, the Hebrew text sets a trajectory of reverence for the divine name (YHWH) that is unmistakable. Generation after generation of faithful Jews and Christians reflected this deep devotion in how they copied, read aloud, thought about, and related those texts to what they thought God was doing in their day. What we find, however, is that when referring to Scripture, early Christians quoted or alluded most often to the Greek version (often referred to as the Septuagint). So our inquiry here will focus not only on select Hebrew words but also on the Greek words used to translate them.

In the English Bible tradition the word “lord” is used in two main ways. First, “lord” is employed to designate a person having special dignity, authority, power, or influence. Second, its capitalized forms, “Lord” and “LORD,” are employed in reference to God, Jesus, and on occasion the Holy Spirit. It is not easy to determine how many times these words are used because translations vary. The Greek word kyrios, for example, can be translated “master” in one version or “lord” in another. Likewise in the NT “lord” can be used to translate words other than kyrios. For example, when blind Bartimaeus addresses Jesus as Rabbouni (Mark 10:51), the KJV renders it “Lord,” while other versions translate it “My teacher” (NRSV) or “Teacher” (Voice), or transliterate it “Rabboni” (NASB). Similarly, when Herod holds a great state dinner on his birthday, among his guests are the megistasin (Mark 6:21), which both the KJV and NASB translate “lords,” while other versions render it “courtiers” (NRSV) and “nobles” (ESV). The point is that translational differences make it difficult to be exact in these matters. Still, the patterns of usages we explore in this chapter are generally uniform.

Old Testament / Hebrew Bible and the Septuagint

In the OT several Hebrew words are translated into English as “lord” or “LORD.” When Isaac thinks the day of his death is approaching, he arranges to offer his fatherly blessing to his eldest son, Esau. Instead, Isaac is tricked, and he blesses his younger son, Jacob (Gen. 27:29):1

Be lord [gəbîr] over your brothers

and may your mother’s sons bow down to you.

Later, after Esau and Isaac realize what has happened, the patriarch says to Esau, “I have already made him your lord [gəbîr], and I have given him all his brothers as servants, and with grain and wine I have sustained him. What then can I do for you, my son?” (Gen. 27:37). The Hebrew word gəbîr, translated “lord” in this context, refers to Jacob as head of a family. Isaac’s blessing grants his second born authority over his brothers, extended family, and, as the story plays out, surrounding peoples. Jacob’s brothers, including Esau, from now on are to relate to him as “servants.” English translations differ on this text; some refer to Jacob as “master” (NASB, NLT, Voice), but most versions render the Hebrew gəbîr “lord” (ESV, KJV, NKJV, NIV, NRSV). In the Greek version of the OT, the Greek word kyrios is used to translate each occurrence of gəbîr (“lord”) in this text. Significantly, the same Greek word is employed earlier in the blessing (27:27) referring to God and translating the divine name (YHWH). More about this later.

The Hebrew word ʾādôn occurs more frequently with reference to persons in authority: (1) the patriarchs as heads of family (Gen. 23:6; 32:4 [32:5 MT]); (2) Joseph as vicegerent over Egypt (Gen. 42:10; 45:9); (3) Moses as head (“lord”) of the people (e.g., Num. 36:2); and (4) foreign kings and generals: e.g., Sisera (Judg. 4:18); Hanun, king of Ammon (2 Sam. 10:3); Ben-hadad, king of Aram (1 Kings 20:9). Frequently Israel’s kings are called ʾādôn (“lord”): Saul (1 Sam. 26:15); David (1 Sam. 25:25; 29:10; 2 Chron. 2:14); Solomon (1 Kings 3:17; 2 Chron. 13:6). The term ʾādôn is deemed appropriate for Israel’s rulers regardless of whether the tradition presents them positively or negatively (e.g., 1 Kings 18:11 [Ahab]). The phrase “my lord [ʾādôn] the king” became commonplace in referring to the line of Davidic kings. Other notable leaders such as Ezra (Ezra 10:3) are addressed as ʾādôn (“lord”) because they are considered religious authorities. Similarly, prophets and priests of Israel are called ʾādôn (“lord”) since they speak and act on heaven’s behalf (1 Sam. 1:15 [Eli]; 1 Kings 18:7 [Elijah]; 2 Kings 4:16 [Elisha]). Almost exclusively those who rendered the Hebrew Bible into Greek preferred the word kyrios to translate ʾādôn in reference to human rulers, leaders, or property owners.

It is important to note that modern translations often use words other than “lord” to refer to those in positions of power and influence. For example, they may translate ʾādôn/kyrios as “master” in contexts dealing with slavery, and “owner” when dealing with property rights and responsibilities. Consider Exod. 21. After giving the Ten Commandments, God commands Moses to set before the Israelites another set of ordinances. The first of these instructions has to do with the treatment of slaves, likely because the Israelites have just been slaves in Egypt. By law Hebrew slaves are to be freed in the seventh year by their owners. If someone enters the master-slave relationship single, he is to be freed single; if someone enters into service married, he is to be freed along with his spouse. But another condition prevails when the master provides the slave with a wife: “If his master [ʾādôn/kyrios] gives him a wife and she bears him sons or daughters, the wife and her children shall be her master’s [ʾādôn/kyrios] and he shall go out alone” (Exod. 21:4). In this passage the Hebrew word ʾādôn refers properly to the one who “owns” and has authority over his slaves (see also Exod. 21:5, 6, 8).

Later in the same chapter, the law addresses another kind of situation, this time involving livestock: “When an ox gores a man or a woman to death, the ox shall be stoned, and its flesh shall not be eaten; but the owner [baʿal/kyrios] of the ox shall not be liable” (Exod. 21:28). In the Hebrew text the word baʿal designates the owner of the ox. This is reflected in most modern translations. However, in early English translations such as the Wycliffe Bible, the English word “lord” is used to refer to the ox’s owner: “If an ox smiteth with his horn either man, or woman, and they be dead, the ox shall be thrown down with stones, and his flesh shall not be eaten, and the lord of the ox shall be guiltless” (Exod. 21:28 Wycliffe Bible). Historians agree that Wycliffe’s work (ca. 1382) greatly influenced what later became the KJV (1611).

The Hebrew word ʾādôn is employed even more frequently to refer to God (e.g., Gen. 18:27; Exod. 4:10; Deut. 9:26) and heavenly messengers. When used in reference to God, ʾādôn is translated with an initial capital: “Lord.” Though rare in the Pentateuch, the title became more common in literature associated with the Second Temple period. It may be used by itself or in combination with other phrases and titles (see below). Angels, because they are messengers of God, carry heavenly authority and so may properly be addressed as ʾādôn (“lord”; lowercase in English translation). When the prophet Zechariah, for example, is directed through a series of visions, he addresses his angelic guide as “my lord” (Zech. 1:9; 4:4).

Perhaps the most significant use of “Lord” in the OT is in its representation of the divine name (Heb. YHWH). While there are many titles given to the one God of Israel in the Hebrew Bible, there is only one name by which God is to be known: the name revealed to Moses in the wilderness (Exod. 3:13–15; 6:2–3; 20:2). The name (referred to as the tetragrammaton, “four letters”) occurs about 6,800 times in the OT (e.g., Gen. 2:4; Exod. 17:15; Judg. 6:22; 1 Sam. 25:26; Pss. 8:1; 23:1; Isa. 40:3). Its sacredness is reflected in the prohibition of its use in any empty or idle way (Exod. 20:7). The Shema (Deut. 6:4) emphasizes the oneness of YHWH, Israel’s God, as well as the unique covenantal relationship he has with his people (see also Isa. 45:5, 6, 11).

The majority of modern English translations render the tetragrammaton “LORD.” The use of small capitals distinguishes this use from “Lord”—a word used to translate other Hebrew words for God or persons in authority—and signals to the reader that God’s unique covenant name underlies the translation. Exactly how early the practice begins is hard to say. The Oxford English...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Series Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Contents
• Abbreviations
• Preface
• 1. “Lord” and “LORD” in the Bible
• 2. Kyrios/Lord as a Christological Title
• 3. Jesus as Kyrios in Paul’s Letters
• 4. YHWH Texts with God as Referent
• 5. YHWH Texts with Christ as Referent
• 6. Pauline Exegesis and a High Christology
• Conclusion
• Selected Bibliography
• Scripture and Ancient Writings Index
• Author Index
• Subject Index
• Back Cover